Japanese Grammar

The 46 basic hiragana characters used for native Japanese words, grammatical elements, and words without kanji. Includes voiced (dakuten) and combo sounds (youon).

The 46 katakana characters used primarily for foreign loanwords, onomatopoeia, emphasis, and scientific terms. Same sounds as hiragana with different shapes.

The copula です (polite) and だ (plain) meaning 'to be'. Used to link nouns and na-adjectives to subjects. Essential for basic sentence formation.

Core grammatical particles: は (topic marker), が (subject marker), を (direct object), に (indirect object, location, time). Foundation of Japanese sentence structure.

Particles indicating location and direction: で (location of action), に (existence location, destination), へ (direction toward). Critical for describing where things happen.

Particles for connecting nouns: と (and, exhaustive list), や (and, non-exhaustive), か (or, question). Essential for listing items and forming questions.

The particle の indicating possession, attribution, and noun modification. Connects nouns like English 's or 'of'. Very frequent in Japanese.

Basic personal pronouns: 私 (watashi - I), あなた (anata - you), 彼/彼女 (kare/kanojo - he/she), 私たち (watashitachi - we), 彼ら (karera - they). Often omitted when clear from context.

Demonstrative system: こ- (this, near speaker), そ- (that, near listener), あ- (that over there), ど- (which, question). Applies to things (これ), places (ここ), directions (こちら).

Japanese and Sino-Japanese number systems (1-100+). Native Japanese (ひとつ, ふたつ) used for counting objects 1-10, Sino-Japanese (いち, に, さん) for larger numbers and dates.

Essential counter words: 人 (にん - people), 個 (こ - small objects), 枚 (まい - flat objects), 本 (ほん - long objects), 匹 (ひき - small animals), 冊 (さつ - books).

Telling time: 時 (じ - o'clock), 分 (ふん/ぷん - minutes), 半 (はん - half). Days of the week, months, and basic time words (今日, 明日, 昨日).

Five-grade verbs ending in -u, -ku, -gu, -su, -tsu, -nu, -bu, -mu, -ru. Conjugation changes the final syllable. Examples: 書く (write), 話す (speak), 読む (read).

One-grade verbs ending in -iru or -eru. Conjugation drops -ru and adds endings. Examples: 食べる (eat), 見る (see), 起きる (wake up). Simpler conjugation than godan.

The two irregular verbs: する (to do) and 来る (くる - to come). する combines with nouns to form compound verbs (勉強する - to study). Essential high-frequency verbs.

The polite verb ending ます for present/future affirmative, ません for negative, ました for past, ませんでした for past negative. Standard in most conversations.

Verbs of existence: いる for animate beings (people, animals), ある for inanimate objects. Used with に for location. Also express possession.

Adjectives ending in い that conjugate directly: 大きい (big), 小さい (small), 高い (tall/expensive), 新しい (new). Drop い and add くない for negative, かった for past.

Adjectives requiring な before nouns: 静か (quiet), きれい (beautiful), 有名 (famous), 元気 (healthy/energetic). Use じゃない for negative, でした for past with です.

Converting adjectives to adverbs: い-adj drops い and adds く (速い→速く), な-adj adds に (静か→静かに). Used to modify verbs.

Basic question words: 何 (nani - what), 誰 (dare - who), どこ (doko - where), いつ (itsu - when), なぜ/どうして (why), どう (how), いくら (how much).

Forming negative sentences: verbs use ません/ない, い-adjectives use くない, な-adjectives use じゃない, nouns use じゃありません/ではない.

Making polite requests with ください (please give) and て-form + ください (please do). Basic polite command form for everyday situations.

Expressing desire to do something: verb stem + たい (I want to). Conjugates like an い-adjective. Use が or を for the object.

Expressing preferences with 好き (like) and 嫌い (dislike) as な-adjectives. The liked object takes が. Degree with 大好き (love) and 大嫌い (hate).

Adverbs of degree: とても (very), 少し (a little), あまり (not very, with negative), 全然 (not at all, with negative), ちょっと (a bit).

Adverbs indicating frequency: いつも (always), よく (often), 時々 (sometimes), たまに (occasionally), あまり (rarely, with neg), 全然 (never, with neg).

Simple comparisons using より (than): A は B より adjective. Also どちら (which of two) for comparison questions, and ほうが for 'the more... one'.

Connecting ideas: そして (and then), でも (but), だから (so/therefore), それから (and then/after that), または (or). Used between sentences.

Particles at sentence end conveying nuance: ね (seeking agreement), よ (informing), か (question), の (explanation/question, casual). Soften or emphasize statements.

Essential greetings and formulaic expressions: おはようございます (good morning), こんにちは (hello), すみません (excuse me), ありがとうございます (thank you), いただきます (before eating).

Family vocabulary with humble (own family) and honorific (others' family) forms: 母/お母さん (mother), 父/お父さん (father), 兄/お兄さん (older brother), etc.

The inclusive particle も meaning 'also' or 'too'. Replaces は, が, or を. With negatives, creates 'nothing/nobody' (何も, 誰も).

Particles indicating starting and ending points: から (from, since) and まで (until, to). Used for time, place, and other ranges. Often used together.

Using に to mark specific times (o'clock, days, months, years). Not used with relative time (today, tomorrow) or frequency words (every day).

Casual particle って for quoting or explaining meaning. Short form of と言う. Used in everyday speech to relay information or ask about meaning.

Expressing 'only': だけ (just, only - neutral), しか + negative verb (only - emphasizes limitation). Difference in nuance and grammatical requirements.

Verb て-form formation: godan verbs have sound changes (書く→書いて, 読む→読んで), ichidan drops -ru and adds -te. Foundation for many grammatical structures.

て-form + いる expressing ongoing action (食べている - eating) or resultant state (結婚している - is married). Context determines which meaning applies.

Using て-form to connect sequential actions or combine sentences. The final verb carries tense. Also used for manner (笑って答える - answer while laughing).

て-form + も expressing 'even if' or 'even though'. Creates concessive clauses. For adjectives: 高くても (i-adj), 静かでも (na-adj), noun + でも.

Casual verb endings used in informal speech, before certain grammar, and in relative clauses. Present affirmative is dictionary form. Negative is ない form.

Plain negative form: godan changes final -u to -a + ない (書く→書かない), ichidan replaces -ru with -ない. する→しない, 来る→来ない (irregular).

Plain past form: follows same sound changes as て-form but ends in た/だ (書いた, 読んだ). Used in casual speech, relative clauses, and certain grammar patterns.

Modifying nouns with verb/adjective clauses placed before the noun (no relative pronoun needed). Uses plain form. 昨日買った本 = 'the book that I bought yesterday'.

Particle と for quoting speech or thoughts with verbs like 言う (say), 思う (think), 聞く (hear/ask). Direct and indirect quotation patterns.

Past plain form + ことがある expressing 'have the experience of'. Used to talk about things done before. Negative: ことがない (have never).

Dictionary form + ことができる expressing ability 'can do'. More formal than potential form. Also noun + ができる for skills (日本語ができる).

Plain form + とき meaning 'when' or 'at the time of'. Tense of clause determines timing relative to main verb. 子供のとき = when I was a child.

Dictionary form + 前に (before doing), た-form + 後で/後に (after doing). Indicates temporal sequence of actions.

Verb stem + ながら expressing simultaneous actions by the same subject: 'while doing X, do Y'. Main action is the final verb. 音楽を聞きながら勉強する.

た-form + ら forming 'if/when' conditional. Emphasizes sequential relationship: when/after X happens, then Y. Versatile for hypothetical and temporal conditions.

Expressing change: adjective く/に + なる (become), noun に + なる. For deliberate change: adjective く/に + する (make), noun に + する (decide on).

Three verbs for giving/receiving based on direction: あげる (give, out-group), くれる (give, to speaker's group), もらう (receive). Reflects social relationships.

て-form + あげる/くれる/もらう for doing/receiving favors. てあげる (I do for someone), てくれる (someone does for me), てもらう (I have someone do).

欲しい (want something, as い-adjective), て-form + ほしい (want someone to do). The wanted item/person takes が. Expresses desires directed at others' actions.

Plain form + そうです for reporting information heard from others ('I heard that', 'they say'). Differs from appearance そう (stem + そう). Indicates indirect knowledge.

Verb stem/adj stem + そう expressing appearance or conjecture based on direct observation. 'Looks like', 'seems'. おいしそう (looks delicious), 降りそう (looks like it will rain).

ように expressing purpose ('so that'), manner ('in a way that'), or comparison ('like'). Potential/ない form + ように for purpose. Often with する/なる.

Expressing ability: godan changes -u to -e + る (書く→書ける), ichidan replaces -ru with -られる (食べられる). Object can take が or を. Conjugates as ichidan.

Passive formation: godan changes -u to -a + れる, ichidan adds -られる. Used for actions received, often with nuance of being affected (adversely). Agent marked by に.

Making/letting someone do: godan changes -u to -a + せる, ichidan adds -させる. Can express permission or coercion. Causee marked by に (allow) or を (force).

Combination of causative and passive expressing 'was made to do': -(a/sa)せられる. Often conveys forced action against one's will. Shortened forms common (飲まされる).

ば conditional: godan changes -u to -e + ば (書けば), ichidan replaces -ru with -れば. Expresses general conditions, hypotheticals. For adjectives: -ければ.

なら conditional: plain form/noun + なら expressing 'if it is the case that', 'speaking of'. Often used for advice or when the topic is already established.

Plain non-past + と for natural/habitual results and discoveries. Implies automatic, inevitable consequence. Not used for volitional actions or requests.

Direct commands: godan changes -u to -e (書け), ichidan replaces -ru with -ろ/-よ (食べろ). Very direct/rough. Negative: dictionary form + な. Used in emergencies, slogans.

Expressing intention/suggestion: godan changes -u to -ou (行こう), ichidan replaces -ru with -よう (食べよう). 'Let's' or 'I will'. ましょう is polite form.

Volitional form + と思う expressing intention 'I think I will', 'I'm planning to'. Can be in continuous ようと思っている for ongoing intention.

Dictionary form + つもり expressing firm intention 'I intend to'. Negative: ない form + つもり or dictionary + つもりはない. Stronger than ようと思う.

Plain form + はず expressing logical expectation 'should be', 'supposed to'. Based on reasoning or evidence. Negative: ないはず or はずがない (can't be).

Plain form + らしい for inference from external information 'it seems', 'apparently'. Also noun + らしい meaning 'typical of' (男らしい - manly).

Plain form + ようだ/みたい expressing resemblance or conjecture 'it seems like', 'looks like'. みたい is more casual. まるで + ようだ for 'just like'.

Overview of the three types of keigo: 尊敬語 (respectful, elevates others), 謙譲語 (humble, lowers self), 丁寧語 (polite, neutral politeness). Understanding social contexts for use.

Forms elevating others' actions: お/ご + stem + になる, special verbs (いらっしゃる, おっしゃる, ご覧になる, 召し上がる). Used for superiors, customers, unfamiliar adults.

Forms lowering speaker's actions to show respect: お/ご + stem + する, special verbs (参る, 申す, いたす, 伺う, 拝見する). Used when speaking about own actions to superiors.

Plain form + のに expressing contrast with disappointment or reproach: 'even though', 'despite'. Often implies the result is unexpected or unwanted.

Expressing reason: から (because, subjective) and ので (since, objective/softer). ので is more polite and used in formal contexts. Plain form precedes both.

Plain form + し listing multiple reasons or characteristics. Often used to build up justification. Can be used alone or in combination. Implies 'and also', 'what's more'.

Dictionary form/noun の + ために for purpose ('in order to'). Plain past + ために for cause/reason ('because of'). Context distinguishes meaning.

Passive where the subject is indirectly affected by an action done to something else. 私は雨に降られた (I was affected by the rain falling). Common for adversity.

Causative form with nuance of permission 'let someone do'. Often with あげる/くれる. Distinguish from coercive causative by context and particle choice (に for permission).

ところ with different forms indicates timing: dictionary + ところ (about to), ている + ところ (in the middle of), た + ところ (just finished). Precise temporal expression.

Multiple uses of ばかり: た + ばかり (just did), て + ばかりいる (always doing), ばかりか/ばかりでなく (not only). Expresses exclusivity or recency.

わけ (reason/meaning) in patterns: わけだ (that's why, it means), わけがない (there's no way), わけではない (it's not that), わけにはいかない (can't afford to).

もの/もん for explanation or excuse ('because', 'you know'). Also ものだ for 'should' (general truth), ものか for strong negation, ものなら for hypothetical.

Advanced こと patterns: ことにする (decide to), ことになる (it's been decided), ことはない (no need to), ことだ (should). Nominalizer with various functions.

て-form + しまう expressing completion (often unintended) or regret. Casual: ちゃう/じゃう. 食べてしまった (ate it all up / accidentally ate). Context determines nuance.

て-form + おく for doing something in advance or leaving something in a state. Implies preparation or precaution. Casual: とく. 準備しておく (prepare in advance).

て-form + みる expressing 'try doing' to see the result. Used when experiencing something new or testing an action. Implies curiosity about outcome.

て-form + いく (going away from reference) and てくる (coming toward reference). Expresses directional movement or change over time. Also for gradual change.

Complex keigo patterns for business and formal contexts: ていただく (receive favor, humble), させていただく (receive permission, humble), お/ご〜いただく structures.

Formal expressions for 'when' or 'occasion': 際 (sai - occasion, formal), 折 (ori - opportunity, literary), 時 (advanced patterns). Used in formal writing and speech.

Classical/literary verb endings found in formal writing, proverbs, poetry: べし (should/must), ごとし (like), たり (classical past), なり (classical copula).

である style for academic and formal writing. Endings: である (is), ではない (is not), であった (was). Also noun + における (in/at), noun + に関して (regarding).

Multi-word particles for formal/written Japanese: において (in/at), に対して (toward), について (about), によって (by means of), にとって (for/to), をもとに (based on).

Sophisticated conjunctions: ものの (although), つつ (while/although), ながらも (while), すなわち (namely), いわば (so to speak), とはいえ (having said that).

Complex nominalizing patterns: ところ (the fact that), 上 (jou - from the standpoint of), 限り (kagiri - as far as), 以上 (given that), 反面 (on the other hand).

Nuanced sentence-final expressions: ではないか (isn't it that), てならない (can't help but), ずにはいられない (can't help doing), といったところだ (it's something like).

Reporting speech with tense/perspective shifts: ということだ (it is said that), とのことだ (according to), と伝えられている (it is reported). Distinguishing hearsay sources.

Sophisticated conditional expressions: ようものなら (if...were to), としたら/とすれば (if we assume), ないことには (unless), 限りでは (as long as).

Professional expressions: お忙しいところ恐れ入りますが (sorry to bother you when busy), ご検討のほど (regarding consideration), 恐縮ですが (I'm afraid that), 幸いです (I would appreciate).

Journalistic style: ものと見られる (is thought to), ことが分かった (it was found that), という (according to), とみられている (is believed to). Headlines and broadcasts.

Classical Japanese grammar found in proverbs, literature, formal contexts: ぬ/ず (classical negative), し (classical attributive), けり (past/realization), らむ (conjecture).

Stylistic and rhetorical patterns: 倒置 (inversion), 体言止め (noun ending), 反語 (rhetorical question), 対句 (parallelism). Used in speeches, essays, literature.

Major regional dialect patterns: 関西弁 (Kansai - へん, やん, おる), 東北弁 (Tohoku - べ, だす), 九州弁 (Kyushu - ばい, たい, けん). Recognition and basic comprehension.

Academic conventions: である体, passive constructions, nominalization, hedging (と考えられる, 可能性がある), citations patterns, thesis structure.

Legal and bureaucratic Japanese: ものとする (shall), 妨げない (does not preclude), の限りでない (not limited to), 準ずる (in accordance with). Contract and law reading.

Literary techniques and narrative styles: stream of consciousness, narrative tenses, atmosphere creation, character voice distinction, poetic prose elements.

Sophisticated idioms and set phrases: 虫がいい (self-serving), 腹が立つ (get angry), 目が高い (have good taste), 口が堅い (tight-lipped), and their appropriate usage contexts.

Mastery of implicit communication: 空気を読む (reading the atmosphere), indirect refusals, appropriate silence, formal vs. informal register shifts, cultural communication patterns.