Catalan Grammar

Personal subject pronouns: jo (I), tu (you), ell/ella/vostè (he/she/you formal), nosaltres (we), vosaltres (you pl.), ells/elles/vostès (they/you formal pl.). Often omitted as verbs are conjugated.

Nouns are masculine or feminine. Masculine often ends in consonant or -e, feminine in -a. Plurals add -s (after vowel) or -os/-es (after consonant). Some irregulars exist.

Definite articles: el (m.sg.), la (f.sg.), els (m.pl.), les (f.pl.). Elision: l' before vowels/h. Special forms: 'en/na' (personal article for proper names, mainly colloquial).

Indefinite articles: un (m.sg.), una (f.sg.), uns (m.pl.), unes (f.pl.). The plural forms mean 'some'. Before feminine nouns starting with unstressed 'a-' or 'ha-': un' (elided).

Two verbs for 'to be': 'ser' for identity, profession, origin, essential characteristics, and time. 'Estar' for location, states, and conditions. Both are irregular and fundamental.

Present tense conjugation of regular 1st conjugation (-ar) verbs: parlo, parles, parla, parlem, parleu, parlen. The largest and most productive verb class.

Present tense of 2nd conjugation verbs (-er/-re): bec, beus, beu, bevem, beveu, beuen (beure). Includes common verbs like perdre, córrer, veure. Some have stem changes.

Present tense of 3rd conjugation (-ir) verbs. Two subtypes: pure (-ir: dormo, dorms, dorm) and inchoative (-ir with -eix-: serveixo, serveixes). The inchoative pattern is very common.

Two important irregular verbs: 'haver' (auxiliary for compound tenses, 'hi ha' = there is/are) and 'tenir' (to have/possess). 'Tenir' also used in expressions: tenir fam, tenir son, tenir raó.

Negation with 'no' before the verb. Questions formed by intonation or inversion. Double negatives required: no...res (nothing), no...mai (never), no...ningú (nobody), no...cap (no/none).

Adjectives agree in gender and number with nouns. Most follow the noun. Masculine ending -consonant adds -a for feminine. Adjectives ending in -e change to -a. Some are invariable.

Common prepositions: a (to/at), de (of/from), en (in/on), amb (with), per (for/through), per a (for/intended for), sense (without), entre (between). Some contract with articles: a+el=al, de+el=del.

Cardinal numbers 1-100. 'Un/una' agrees in gender. Special forms: 'dos/dues' (two m/f), compound numbers joined with '-' (vint-i-un). Ordinals: primer, segon, tercer, etc.

Telling time (Quina hora és? - És la una / Són les dues), days (dilluns, dimarts...), months (gener, febrer...), and basic temporal expressions (avui, demà, ahir).

Essential phrases: greetings (bon dia, bona tarda), introductions (em dic...), politeness (si us plau, gràcies, de res), and basic conversational phrases.

Essential irregular verbs in present tense: anar (go), fer (do/make), dir (say), poder (can), voler (want), saber (know), venir (come). High-frequency verbs needed from the start.

Possessive adjectives: el meu/la meva (my), el teu/la teva (your), el seu/la seva (his/her/your formal). They agree in gender and number with the possessed noun, not the possessor.

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns: aquest/aquesta (this), aqueix/aqueixa (that near you), aquell/aquella (that over there). Agree in gender and number. Also: això, allò (neuter).

Common adverbs: aquí (here), allà (there), ara (now), sempre (always), mai (never), molt (very/a lot), poc (little), bé (well), malament (badly). Many formed with -ment suffix.

Expressing likes with 'agradar' (indirect object pattern: m'agrada = I like). Also 'anar' for going, including periphrastic future: vaig a + infinitive. 'Anar-se'n' = to leave.

Family vocabulary: pare (father), mare (mother), germà (brother), germana (sister), fill (son), filla (daughter), avi (grandfather), àvia (grandmother). Gender patterns and plurals.

Food and drink vocabulary in context: pa (bread), formatge (cheese), carn (meat), aigua (water), vi (wine). Includes ordering expressions and the verb 'prendre' (to have/take a drink).

Preposition-article contractions: a+el=al, a+els=als, de+el=del, de+els=dels, per+el=pel, per+els=pels. Elision of articles and pronouns before vowels: l'escola, m'agrada.

Colour adjectives with gender agreement: negre/negra (black), blanc/blanca (white), vermell/a (red), blau/blava (blue), groc/groga (yellow), verd/a (green). Most follow standard agreement rules.

Expressing daily activities: llevar-se (get up), esmorzar (have breakfast), dinar (have lunch), sopar (have dinner), anar a dormir (go to sleep). Combines reflexives with time expressions.

Weather expressions using 'fer' and 'estar': fa sol (it's sunny), fa fred (it's cold), plou (it rains), neva (it snows), està ennuvolat (it's cloudy). 'Quin temps fa?' (What's the weather like?).

Body parts and basic health expressions: cap (head), braç (arm), cama (leg), panxa (belly). Pain: 'em fa mal el/la' (my... hurts). Health: estar malalt/a, tenir febre.

Location words: aquí (here), allà (there), a prop (nearby), lluny (far), a la dreta (on the right), a l'esquerra (on the left). Using 'on és...?' (where is...?) for asking directions.

Modal verbs for ability, desire, and knowledge: poder (can/be able to), voler (want), saber (know how to). All irregular. Used with infinitive: Puc parlar català.

Question words: què (what), qui (who), on (where), quan (when), com (how), per què (why), quant/a/s/es (how much/many), quin/a/s/es (which). All carry accents.

The standard spoken past tense formed with 'anar' (to go) conjugated + infinitive: vaig cantar (I sang). Unique to Catalan among Romance languages. Forms: vaig, vas/vares, va, vam/vàrem, vau/vàreu, van/varen.

Compound past with haver + past participle: he cantat, has cantat, ha cantat... Used for recent past or present-relevant past. Past participle agrees with preceding direct object pronoun in formal register.

Unstressed (weak/clitic) pronouns that attach to verbs: em/me (me), et/te (you), el/la (him/her), ens (us), us/vos (you pl.), els/les (them). Position: before conjugated verb, after infinitive/imperative.

Reflexive constructions with weak pronouns: rentar-se (to wash oneself), llevar-se (to get up), sentir-se (to feel). Pronoun agrees with subject: em rento, et rentes, es renta...

Relative clauses with 'que' (who/that/which): L'home que parla és el meu pare. Also 'on' (where) and 'quan' (when) for place and time relatives.

Common conjunctions: i (and), o (or), però (but), perquè (because), com que (since), quan (when), si (if), mentre (while), encara que (although). Useful for building complex sentences.

Describing physical traits: cabell (hair), ulls (eyes), alt/a (tall), baix/a (short), prim/a (thin), gros/sa (fat). Using ser for permanent traits and estar for states.

Past participle: -at/-ada (-ar), -ut/-uda (-er/-re), -it/-ida (-ir). Used in compound tenses. Gerund: -ant, -ent, -int for progressive: Està parlant (He/she is talking).

Indirect object weak pronouns: em (to me), et (to you), li (to him/her), ens (to us), us (to you pl.), els (to them). Used with verbs like donar, dir, ensenyar, demanar.

Ordinal numbers: primer/a (first), segon/a (second), tercer/a (third). Quantity: molt/a/s/es (much/many), poc/a/s/poques (few), bastant (enough), massa (too much), prou (enough).

Opinion structures: crec que (I think that), em sembla que (it seems to me that), prefereixo (I prefer), estic d'acord (I agree), no estic d'acord (I disagree).

Common movement verbs and their prepositions: anar a (to go to), venir de (to come from), sortir de (to leave from), entrar a (to enter), pujar (to go up), baixar (to go down), tornar a (to return to).

Imperfect tense for past habitual actions and descriptions: cantava, cantaves, cantava, cantàvem, cantàveu, cantaven. Used for background actions, descriptions, and ongoing states in the past.

Simple future formed by adding endings to the infinitive: cantaré, cantaràs, cantarà, cantarem, cantareu, cantaran. Irregular stems for common verbs: ser→seré, tenir→tindré, fer→faré.

Conditional formed from infinitive + imperfect haver endings: cantaria, cantaries, cantaria, cantaríem, cantaríeu, cantarien. Same irregular stems as future. Used for polite requests and hypotheticals.

Command forms: 2nd singular uses special forms (canta, beu, dorm), 2nd plural uses -eu/-iu. Formal uses subjunctive. Negative imperative uses 'no' + subjunctive. Pronoun placement differs: after affirmative, before negative.

Subjunctive forms: canti, cantis, canti, cantem, canteu, cantin. Used after verbs of wishing, doubt, emotion (vull que, espero que, dubto que), impersonal expressions (cal que), and in purpose clauses (perquè + subj.).

Comparison: més...que (more...than), menys...que (less...than), tan...com (as...as). Superlative: el/la més + adj. Irregular forms: bo→millor, dolent→pitjor, gran→major, petit→menor.

Two unique weak pronouns: 'en' replaces partitive/de-phrases (En vols? = Do you want some?) and 'hi' replaces location/a-phrases and complements with 'a' (Hi vaig = I go there). Essential for natural Catalan.

Distinguishing periphrastic past (completed), present perfect (recent/relevant), and imperfect (habitual/descriptive). Understanding which past tense to use in context.

First conditional with 'si' + present + future: Si plou, no sortiré. Also 'si' + present + present for general truths. Open, real conditions for future possibilities.

Verb + infinitive constructions: anar a (going to), acabar de (just finished), tornar a (do again), haver de (must), estar a punt de (about to), deixar de (stop doing).

Nuanced distinctions: ser + adjective (inherent quality) vs estar + adjective (temporary state). Ser for events (La festa és aquí), estar for results (La porta està oberta). Some adjectives change meaning.

Impersonal expressions: cal (it is necessary), es pot (one can), es diu que (it is said that), fa falta (it is needed). Using infinitive or subjunctive with impersonal triggers.

Using que, qui, el qual/la qual/els quals/les quals in relative clauses after prepositions: amb qui (with whom), per al qual (for which), la raó per la qual (the reason for which).

Imperfect subjunctive: cantés, cantessis, cantés, cantéssim, cantéssiu, cantessin. Used in conditional clauses (si pogués...), past wishes, and subordinate clauses depending on a past main verb.

Passive with ser + past participle (agreeing): El llibre va ser escrit per ella. Also impersonal constructions with 'es/hom': Es parla català aquí. Reflexive passive: Es venen pisos.

Second conditional: si + imperfect subjunctive + conditional (Si pogués, ho faria). Third conditional: si + pluperfect subjunctive + conditional perfect (Si hagués pogut, ho hauria fet). Mixed conditionals also possible.

Indirect speech with tense backshift: present→imperfect, periphrastic past→pluperfect, future→conditional. Pronoun and time reference changes. Introduced by 'que' after verbs of saying.

When two weak pronouns combine, specific contraction rules apply: me + el = me'l, se + en = se'n, li + ho = li ho. Order is fixed: reflexive → indirect object → direct object → en/hi.

Pluperfect: havia cantat (I had sung), for actions before another past event. Past anterior: haguí cantat (rare, literary). Used in complex temporal sequences and reported speech.

Advanced connectors for coherent text: d'altra banda (on the other hand), tanmateix/no obstant això (however), a més a més (furthermore), en definitiva (in short), pel que fa a (regarding).

Complex relatives with prepositions: 'la casa en què visc' (the house in which I live), 'el motiu pel qual' (the reason for which), 'la persona de qui parlo' (the person about whom I speak).

Using fer + infinitive to express causing or making someone do something: fer cantar (to make sing), fer venir (to send for), deixar + infinitive (to let), and making someone have something done.

Using participle and gerund as clause heads: Acabat el dinar, vam sortir (The meal finished, we went out). Gerund clauses: Estudiant molt, aprovaràs (By studying hard, you'll pass). Formal written style.

Literary past tense (cantí, cantares, cantà, cantàrem, cantàreu, cantaren) used in formal writing and literature. Replaced by periphrastic past in speech. Essential for reading Catalan literature.

The personal article 'en/na' (el/la in Balearic) before proper names: en Pere, na Maria. Also: the neuter article 'el/allò' (el bo, allò que dius), and the salat article of Balearic (es/sa).

Formal and academic Catalan: use of 'hom' (one/impersonal), subjunctive in formal subordination, literary connectors (tanmateix, nogensmenys, car), and formal correspondence conventions.

Common Catalan idioms and set phrases: 'anar de cul' (to be overwhelmed), 'fer el ple' (to be packed), 'no tenir ni cap ni peus' (to make no sense). Many are unique to Catalan culture.

Complex pronoun combinations and their written forms: me la, te'ls, ens ho, els hi, se'ls. Includes reductions and the full apostrophe/hyphen rules for written Catalan.

Complex clause patterns: concessive (malgrat que, per bé que), purpose (a fi que + subjunctive), result (de manera que), cause (atès que, vist que), and their register associations.

Key orthographic rules: accent marks (greu/agut), dieresis (ü, ï), ela geminada (l·l), apostrophes, hyphens in pronoun placement. Understanding the IEC normative framework.

Advanced tense agreement in complex sentences: main clause tense governs subordinate clause tense. Present→present subjunctive, past→imperfect subjunctive. Also future and conditional sequences.

Key differences between Central, Balearic, Valencian, and Northwestern Catalan: articles (el/sa/es), vocabulary (noi/al·lot/xic), verb forms (vaig cantar/cantí), and phonological differences (open/closed vowels).

Understanding medieval Catalan from Llull, the Crònica de Jaume I, and Ausiàs March. Features: archaic verb forms, Latin-derived syntax, old spelling conventions, and literary Catalan of the Renaixença.

Official Catalan in legal, administrative, and institutional contexts. Features: impersonal constructions, nominalization, formal subjunctive, and specialized terminology of Catalan governance.

Informal spoken Catalan features: shortened forms (pq = perquè), filler words (o sigui, bueno, vale), mixing registers, Castilian borrowings in informal speech, and the gap between norm and usage.

Discourse-level features: hedging (potser, segurament, em sembla que), tag questions (oi?, veritat?, no?), fillers (doncs, llavors, mira), and politeness strategies in Catalan conversation.

Language of Catalan media: headlines, news register, TV3 style norms, radio language. Differences from everyday speech: nominalizations, passive constructions, and specialized media vocabulary.

Understanding Catalan's sociolinguistic context: diglossia with Spanish, language normalization, code-switching, the continuum from Catalan light to heavy, and language attitudes in different domains.