Indonesian Grammar

Latin alphabet with 26 letters. Mostly phonetic spelling. Special combinations: ng, ny, sy. No tones. Stress typically on penultimate syllable.

Pronouns: saya/aku (I), kamu/Anda (you), dia (he/she), kami/kita (we-excl/incl), kalian (you-pl), mereka (they). Formality levels.

Adalah = 'to be' for formal definitions (often omitted). For adjectives, no copula needed: Dia cantik (She is beautiful). Ini/itu for 'this/that is'.

Ada = 'there is/are' or 'to exist'. Punya = 'to have/own'. Tidak ada = 'there isn't'. Saya punya = 'I have'.

Verbs don't conjugate for person/number/tense. Tense from context or time words: sudah (already), sedang (currently), akan (will). SVO word order.

Adjectives follow nouns: mobil baru (new car). As predicates, no copula: Mobil itu baru (That car is new). Intensifiers: sangat, sekali.

Negation: tidak (for verbs/adjectives), bukan (for nouns/pronouns). Belum = 'not yet'. Jangan = 'don't' (imperative).

Yes/no questions with -kah suffix or apakah. Question words: apa (what), siapa (who), di mana (where), kapan (when), bagaimana (how), mengapa/kenapa (why).

Word doubling for plurality or variety: buku-buku (books), sayur-mayur (various vegetables). Also for emphasis or distribution.

Numbers 0-100: satu, dua, tiga, empat, lima, enam, tujuh, delapan, sembilan, sepuluh. Telling time: jam berapa (what time). Currency: rupiah.

Location prepositions: di (at/in), ke (to), dari (from), pada (on/at), dengan (with), untuk (for), tanpa (without).

Possession with noun + possessor or punya: buku saya (my book), rumah Ali (Ali's house). Suffix -nya for 'his/her/its'.

Demonstrative words: ini (this), itu (that), di sini (here), di sana (there). Follow or precede the noun: buku ini (this book), ini buku (this is a book).

Essential everyday verbs: pergi (go), datang (come), makan (eat), minum (drink), tidur (sleep), buat/membuat (make), bicara (speak), tulis (write), baca (read).

Essential time expressions: hari ini (today), kemarin (yesterday), besok (tomorrow), sekarang (now), pagi/siang/sore/malam (morning/afternoon/evening/night).

Simple conjunctions: dan (and), atau (or), tetapi/tapi (but), karena (because), jadi (so/therefore), lalu (then).

Common adverbs: sangat (very), terlalu (too much), juga (also), hanya/cuma (only), masih (still), selalu (always).

Essential daily expressions: selamat pagi (good morning), sampai jumpa (goodbye), maaf (sorry), tidak apa-apa (it's okay), silakan (please/go ahead).

Simple imperatives and polite requests: pergi (go), ke sini (come here), duduk (sit). Softened with tolong (please help), silakan (please), or mohon (formal please).

Expressing preferences: suka (like), mau/ingin (want), perlu/butuh (need), benci (hate). Followed directly by verb or noun.

Knowledge verbs: tahu (know a fact), kenal (know a person), mengerti/paham (understand). Bisa = can/know how to.

Bisa = ability/can (Saya bisa = I can). Boleh = permission/may (Boleh masuk? = May I enter?). Key distinction between ability and permission.

Days: Senin through Minggu. Months: Januari through Desember. Date format: tanggal + number + month + year.

Basic colors: merah (red), hijau (green), biru (blue), kuning (yellow), putih (white), hitam (black). Colors follow warna or noun: baju merah (red shirt).

Family vocabulary: ayah/bapak (father), ibu (mother), kakak (older sibling), adik (younger sibling), anak (child). Also used as address terms.

Essential place vocabulary: rumah (home), sekolah (school), pasar (market), rumah sakit (hospital), restoran (restaurant). Used with di/ke/dari.

Key pronunciation: e pepet [ə] vs e taling [e], ng [ŋ] vs ngg [ŋg], consonant digraphs (kh, sy, ny). Stress on penultimate syllable unless prefix present.

Indonesian address terms: Pak/Bapak (sir/Mr.), Bu/Ibu (ma'am/Mrs.), Mas (older brother-Javanese), Mbak (older sister-Javanese). Greetings vary by time of day.

Multifunctional suffix -nya: possessive (rumahnya = his/her house), definite marker (bukunya = the book), nominalizer (besarnya = its size).

Location adverbs: di sini (here), di sana (there), di atas (above), di bawah (below), di depan (in front), di belakang (behind), di samping (beside).

Active voice prefix me-: makan→memakan, tulis→menulis, baca→membaca. N changes based on first consonant of root. Formal/written style.

Passive voice prefix di-: dibaca (is read), ditulis (is written). Agent with oleh. Very common in Indonesian.

Intransitive/stative prefix ber-: berbicara (speak), berjalan (walk), bekerja (work). Indicates having, wearing, or doing habitually.

Past: sudah, tadi, kemarin, dulu. Present: sekarang, sedang. Future: akan, nanti, besok. Habitual: biasanya, sering, jarang.

Comparative: lebih + adj + daripada. Superlative: paling + adj or ter- prefix. Equality: sama + adj + dengan.

Complex prepositions: dari...ke (from...to), di antara (between/among), di sekitar (around), tentang (about/regarding), menurut (according to).

Quantity words: banyak (many/much), sedikit (few/little), setiap (each), semua (all), beberapa (some/several), cukup (enough).

Time connectors: ketika/waktu (when), sebelum (before), sesudah/setelah (after), sementara/sambil (while), begitu (as soon as), sejak (since).

Reflexive: sendiri (self/alone), diri sendiri (oneself). Reciprocal: saling (each other). Also: bersama (together).

Prefix ter-: superlative (terbesar = biggest), accidental/involuntary (tertidur = fell asleep), ability (terlihat = visible). Multiple meanings.

Prefix se-: same/one (sebesar = as big as), whole (seluruh = entire), each (setiap = every). Also: se- + noun = one (sebuah = one piece of).

Suffix -kan: benefactive/causative (memberikan = give to). Suffix -i: locative/repetitive (mendatangi = visit). Change transitivity.

Conditional with kalau/jika (if), seandainya (suppose). Real and unreal conditionals. Result: maka (then).

Relative clauses with yang (who/which/that): orang yang datang (the person who came), buku yang saya baca (the book I read).

Nominalizing prefix pe(N)-: penulis (writer), pembaca (reader), pelayan (servant). Creates agent nouns or instruments.

Nominalizing suffix -an: makanan (food), tulisan (writing), minuman (drink). Creates result nouns or collective nouns.

Emphasis patterns: sekali (very/so), benar-benar (really/truly), betapa (how!), alangkah (how...!). Exclamatory structures for emotions.

Purpose clauses with untuk/agar/supaya (in order to/so that): Belajar untuk ujian (Study for the exam). Agar/supaya + result clause.

Expressing results: jadi/maka (so/therefore), oleh karena itu (therefore), akibatnya (as a result), sehingga (so that/resulting in).

Sequencing events: pertama (first), kemudian/lalu (then), akhirnya (finally), selanjutnya (next). Combining time markers for narrative flow.

Concessive structures: meskipun/walaupun (although), sekalipun (even though), bagaimanapun (however/nevertheless). Expressing contrast.

Expressing wishes: andai/andaikan (if only), semoga (hope/may), mudah-mudahan (hopefully), seandainya (suppose). Counterfactual and real wishes.

Structures for defining: X itu apa (what is X), artinya (means), yaitu (that is/namely), disebut/dinamakan (called). Academic/explanatory contexts.

Placement rules for adverbs: time (beginning/end), manner (after verb), frequency (before verb), degree (before adjective). Indonesian is flexible but has preferences.

Extended passive with agent: di- + verb + oleh. Kena (colloquial passive for adverse events). Terkena (affected by). Passive in different registers.

Passive with 1st/2nd person agent: pronoun + root verb. Saya baca (read by me) vs dibaca oleh saya. More conversational.

Reported speech with bahwa (that): mengatakan bahwa (said that), bertanya apakah (asked whether). No tense shift.

Connectors: tetapi/tapi (but), dan (and), atau (or), karena (because), oleh karena itu (therefore), namun (however).

Complex conditionals: kalau tidak (otherwise), asalkan (as long as), kecuali (unless), meskipun (even if). Mixed conditional patterns.

Paired structures: semakin...semakin (the more...the more), baik...maupun (both...and), bukan hanya...tetapi juga (not only...but also), entah...entah (whether...or).

Multi-clause sentences: karena...maka (because...then), kalau...maka (if...then), walaupun...tetapi (although...but). Formal written patterns.

Extended causatives: membuat (make/cause), memaksa (force), meminta (request), mengusulkan (propose), memerintahkan (order). Formal hierarchy.

Discourse particles: -lah (emphasis/softener), -kah (question), sih (casual emphasis), dong (urging), kok (surprise/contradiction).

Academic/written connectors: pertama (firstly), selain itu (besides), singkatnya (in summary), sebaliknya (on the other hand), dengan kata lain (in other words).

Complex reported speech: indirect questions, embedded commands, various speech verbs: mengakui (admit), menyangkal (deny), menegaskan (confirm), menyarankan (suggest).

Formal registers: official documents, academic writing, news language. Full affixation, formal vocabulary, Anda for 'you'.

Combined affixes: ke-...-an (abstract nouns), pe-...-an (process nouns), per-...-an (formal nouns). Complex word formation.

Official/bureaucratic Indonesian: legal terms, government documents, formal notifications. Characteristic of surat dinas (official letters).

Topic-comment structure: fronting elements for emphasis. Focus constructions with -lah, yang-cleft: Yang datang adalah Ali (It was Ali who came).

Literary register: poetic structures, classical Malay elements, literary vocabulary, rhetorical devices, parallelism in prose and poetry.

Journalistic Indonesian: headline patterns, reported speech in news, formal attributions, passive constructions common in media.

Formal passive without explicit agent in written Indonesian. Impersonal structures: dapat dikatakan (it can be said), perlu diketahui (it should be known).

Borrowed vocabulary from Sanskrit, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, English. Understanding etymological layers aids formal vocabulary: Malay, Sanskrit, Arabic, European.

Informal speech: Jakarta dialect, youth slang, dropped prefixes, borrowed words. gue/gw (I), lu/lo (you), nggak (no).

Indonesian proverbs and idioms: sambil menyelam minum air, sedia payung sebelum hujan, besar pasak daripada tiang.

Indonesian internet-speak: abbreviated forms, social media conventions, meme language, text-speak, Indonesianized English terms.

Academic writing style: thesis structures, abstract language, hedging expressions, citing sources, formal argumentation patterns.

Regional Indonesian varieties influenced by local languages: Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Minangkabau. Local vocabulary and expressions in regional Indonesian.

Indonesian rhetorical figures: perumpamaan (simile), metafora (metaphor), personifikasi (personification), hiperbola (hyperbole), ironi (irony).

Classical Malay vocabulary and structures preserved in formal/literary Indonesian: archaic pronouns, old verb forms, hikayat (narrative) conventions.