Chinese Grammar

A Mandarin syllable usually begins with an initial (声母 shēngmǔ), followed by a final and a tone. Standard pinyin has 21 initials: b p m f, d t n l, g k h, j q x, zh ch sh r, z c s. The most important beginner habit is to hear and produce aspiration—a strong puff of air—in pairs such as b/p, d/t, and g/k, rather than treating them simply as English “voiced” and “voiceless” consonants.

A pinyin final (韵母, yùnmǔ) is the part of a Mandarin syllable that follows the opening consonant: in mā, m is the initial and a is the final. Begin with a, o, e, i, u, ü, then learn combinations such as ai, ei, ao, ou and nasal finals ending in -n or -ng. Read them by pinyin rules rather than English spelling, and practise each final together with its tone.

In Mandarin, the pitch pattern of a syllable is part of the word: mā, má, mǎ, and mà can have different meanings even though their consonants and vowels are the same. Standard Mandarin has four numbered tones—high level, rising, low/dipping, and falling—plus a short, unstressed neutral tone.

Tone sandhi (变调, biàndiào) is a predictable change of tone caused by the surrounding sounds. Learn three patterns first: 3rd + 3rd becomes 2nd + 3rd, 不 bù becomes bú before a 4th tone, and 一 yī becomes yí before a 4th tone but yì before tones 1, 2, and 3. The characters do not change; only their pronunciation in context does.

Chinese characters (汉字, hànzì) are organised combinations of strokes, not unstructured pictures. Learn to recognise a character's components, keep the whole character inside an imaginary square, and follow the usual stroke-order principles: generally top before bottom, left before right, and outside before inside. Components may suggest meaning or sound, but they are clues rather than guaranteed definitions or pronunciations.

A radical, 部首 (bùshǒu), is the component under which a Chinese character is traditionally classified in a dictionary. Many radicals also act as semantic components—parts that suggest a broad area of meaning: 氵 often relates to water, 讠 to speech, and 忄 to thoughts or feelings. These are clues, not definitions, so use them to organize and remember characters rather than to guess with certainty.

Mandarin uses 我 for “I/me,” 你 for “you,” and 他 / 她 / 它 for “he/she/it.” A pronoun does not change between subject and object: 我认识他 means “I know him,” while 他认识我 means “He knows me.” Add 们 for plural personal pronouns and 的 for possession: 我们 “we/us,” 我的 “my/mine.”

A basic Mandarin sentence normally follows Subject + Verb + Object: 我吃饭 (Wǒ chīfàn) means “I eat” or “I have a meal.” The verb does not change for the person or tense. Put information that frames the action—especially time, place, and manner—before the main verb: 我明天在家学习 “I’ll study at home tomorrow.”

Use 是 (shì) when one person or thing is identified as another person, thing, or category: A 是 B. Negate it with 不是 (bú shì) and ask a yes–no question with 吗 (ma) or 是不是 (shì bu shì). Unlike English be, 是 normally does not connect a subject directly to an adjective.

Use 有 (yǒu) to say that someone has something or that something exists in a place. Put the owner or location before 有: 我有一本书 “I have a book”; 这里有一家银行 “There is a bank here.” The negative is 没有 (méiyǒu), not 不有.

In Mandarin, an adjective can be the predicate (the part that says something about the subject) without a word meaning “to be.” A neutral statement usually puts 很 (hěn) before the adjective: 她很高兴 means “She is happy,” and 很 does not always carry a strong sense of “very.” Say 今天很热, not 今天是热.

Use 不 (bù) for habits, states, judgments, choices, and future intentions: 我不喝咖啡 means “I don’t drink coffee.” Use 没 or 没有 (méi / méiyǒu) when an event did not happen, and use 没有 to negate 有 “to have; to exist”: 我没去 “I didn’t go,” 他没有钱 “He doesn’t have money.”

To turn a Mandarin statement into a neutral yes/no question, usually keep the statement exactly as it is and add 吗 (ma) at the end: 你喜欢。 “You like it.” → 你喜欢吗？ “Do you like it?” Answer by repeating the key verb or adjective, with 不 or 没 for a negative answer: 喜欢 / 不喜欢, 去了 / 没去.

Mandarin question words normally stay in the same position as the information they ask for: 你吃什么？ literally follows the pattern “You eat what?”, not the English order “What do you eat?” Use 什么 for “what,” 谁 for “who,” 哪里/哪儿 for “where,” 什么时候 for “when,” 怎么 for “how,” 为什么 for “why,” and 几/多少 for quantities. Do not add 吗 to an ordinary question-word question.

Use 这 (zhè) for “this” and 那 (nà) for “that.” Before a noun, Chinese normally puts a measure word between the demonstrative and the noun: 这本书 (zhè běn shū, this book), 那个人 (nà ge rén, that person). 这个/那个 can mean “this one/that one,” while 这里/那里 mean “here/there.”

Mandarin numbers follow a regular pattern. Learn 一 through 十; then make 11–19 with 十 + digit, and 20–99 with digit + 十 + digit: 十一 (11), 二十 (20), 三十五 (35). Use 二 for the number two itself and in counting, but normally use 两 before a measure word: 两个人 (“two people”).

Mandarin Chinese normally places a measure word between a number or demonstrative (“this” or “that”) and a noun: 三本书 (sān běn shū, “three books”) and 这杯咖啡 (zhè bēi kāfēi, “this cup of coffee”). The basic pattern is number/demonstrative + measure word + noun. Learn 个 as a common general classifier, then add the usual classifier together with each new noun.

Mandarin time expressions normally come before the verb or predicate: 我八点起床 means “I get up at eight.” They can appear before or after the subject: 今天我很忙 and 我今天很忙 are both possible. Clock times use 点 after the hour, as in 三点 “three o’clock.”

Mandarin location words (方位词, fāngwèicí) normally come after the place or object they locate something relative to: 桌子上 (zhuōzi shàng) is “on the table,” literally “table + on.” The essential set is 上、下、里、外、前、后、左、右, often expanded with 面 or 边, as in 里面 “inside” and 左边 “the left side.” In a complete location sentence, a common pattern is thing + 在 + place + location word: 书在桌子上。 “The book is on the table.”

Use 在 (zài) to locate a person or thing: 我在家。 means “I am at home.” To say where an action happens, put 在 + place before the action: 我在学校学习。 means “I study at school.” For more exact positions, add a location word: 书在桌子上。 “The book is on the table.”

Mandarin verbs do not change for person or number: 我去 “I go” and 他去 “he goes” use exactly the same form, 去. Start with 是、有、去、来、吃、喝、看、听、说、做、买、要, and place them after the subject and before their object. Time words, negatives, modal verbs, and aspect markers—not verb endings—tell you how an action relates to time.

Mandarin modal verbs such as 会, 能, 可以, 要, 想, and 应该 normally come before the main verb: 我想去中国 means “I want to go to China.” They never change form for person or number. The key is choosing by meaning: learned skill, practical ability, permission, desire, intention, or advice.

The essential Mandarin exchanges are 你好 (nǐ hǎo, hello), 谢谢 (xièxie, thank you), 不客气 (bú kèqi, you’re welcome), 对不起 (duìbuqǐ, sorry), 没关系 (méi guānxi, it’s okay), and 再见 (zàijiàn, goodbye). Learn them as complete conversational pairs: 谢谢—不客气 and 对不起—没关系. Mandarin greetings do not change according to who is speaking, but the situation and relationship determine which expression sounds most natural.

Use 的 (de) between a possessor and a noun: 我的书 (wǒ de shū) means “my book,” and 老师的电脑 (lǎoshī de diànnǎo) means “the teacher’s computer.” The basic order is possessor + 的 + noun. With close relationships and familiar groups, Mandarin often omits 的, as in 我妈妈 (“my mom”) and 我们学校 (“our school”).

Chinese prepositions such as 从 (from), 向 (toward), 对 (to/toward), 跟 (with), and 给 (for/to) come before their object and usually place the whole phrase before the main verb: 我跟朋友吃饭 means “I eat with a friend.” Learn each preposition as part of a sentence pattern rather than matching it to one English word.

Use 和 to join nouns and noun phrases, but not normally to join complete clauses. 也, 都, 还, and 又 behave like adverbs and usually come after the subject but before the verb or adjective. For “or,” use 或者 in statements and 还是 when asking someone to choose.

Mandarin adverbs such as 很 (very), 已经 (already), and 常常 (often) normally come before the verb or adjective they modify: 我常常去那里, “I often go there.” Unlike English, Mandarin usually does not put these adverbs after the verb. 就 and 才 also appear before the verb, but express contrasting ideas such as “as early/readily as” versus “only then/not until.”

Mandarin family terms give information that English often leaves unstated. A brother or sister is normally identified as older or younger—哥哥/弟弟 and 姐姐/妹妹—and grandparents have different names on the father's and mother's sides: 爷爷/奶奶 versus 外公/外婆. For close relatives, the possessive marker 的 is often omitted, so 我妈妈 is the usual compact way to say “my mom.”

Ask 这个多少钱？ (Zhège duōshao qián?, “How much is this?”). Prices use 元 or the conversational 块 for yuan, 角 or 毛 for tenths of a yuan, and 分 for hundredths: 三十五块钱 means “35 yuan.” If a price is too high, 太贵了，能便宜一点吗？ politely asks whether it can be a little cheaper.

Use 天气怎么样？ (tiānqì zěnmeyàng?) to ask what the weather is like. Describe temperature with an adjective-like word, as in 今天很热 (“It is hot today”), and use verb phrases such as 下雨 and 下雪 for rain and snow. The seasons are 春天、夏天、秋天、冬天.

Put 了 (le) after a verb to present an action as completed: 我吃了早饭 means “I ate breakfast.” Chinese 了 is an aspect marker, not a general past-tense ending, so it is used only when completion matters. To say that an action did not happen, use 没(有) + verb and normally omit 了: 我没吃早饭.

Sentence-final 了 (le) tells the listener that a situation is new, has changed, or has become relevant now: 我饿了 means “I’m hungry now” or “I’ve become hungry.” It also appears in common patterns such as 太贵了 (“too expensive”) and 快要下课了 (“class is about to end”). This use is different from 了 placed directly after a verb to mark a completed action.

Put 过 after a verb to say that someone has had that experience before: 我去过中国。 means “I’ve been to China.” Ask “ever?” with verb + 过 + 吗, and say “never” with 没/没有 + verb + 过. This pattern presents something as part of a person’s experience, rather than reporting one specific completed event.

Put 着 (zhe) directly after a verb when the result, position, or manner described by that verb continues: 门开着 means “the door is open,” and 他站着 means “he is standing.” It often describes a state you can observe rather than an event unfolding. For an action happening right now, Chinese normally uses 在/正在 + verb instead.

Put 在 or 正在 before an action verb to say that the action is in progress: 我在吃饭 means “I’m eating.” 正在 makes the ongoing meaning more explicit, while sentence-final 呢 can reinforce it: 我正在吃饭呢. Use this pattern for an action happening around a particular moment, not automatically for every English verb ending in “-ing.”

To say that A is more adjective than B, use A 比 B + adjective: 他比我高 means “He is taller than me.” The adjective normally comes directly after the comparison—do not insert the neutral 很 used in ordinary adjective sentences. Add 一点儿, 得多, or 多了 after the adjective to show how large the difference is.

A Mandarin result complement states what an action achieved: 动词 + 结果补语 (“verb + result complement”). In 听懂, 听 is the action “listen” and 懂 is the result “understand”; in 做完, 做 is “do” and 完 is “finish.” If the result did not happen, normally put 没(有) before the whole combination: 没听懂 (“didn't understand”).

A Mandarin directional complement (an element after a verb that shows the direction of an action) tells you where someone or something moves: 走进来 “walk in,” 跑出去 “run out,” or 拿回来 “bring back.” The essential contrast is 来 for movement toward the speaker or another reference point and 去 for movement away from it. Words such as 上、下、进、出、回 describe the path and can combine with 来 or 去.

Put 得 (de) directly after a verb when you want to describe how an action is performed: 他说得很好 means “He speaks very well,” and 你跑得太慢了 means “You run too slowly.” If the verb has an object, do not put that object between the verb and 得; move it before the verb or repeat the verb: 他中文说得很好 or 他说中文说得很好.

The three particles 的, 地, and 得 are all usually pronounced de in these grammar patterns, but they occupy different positions. Use 的 before a noun (漂亮的女孩), 地 before a verb or action (高兴地说), and 得 after a verb or adjective to introduce a description (说得很好). A useful memory line is: 的 + noun; 地 + verb; verb + 得.

The 把 construction places a specific object before the verb and highlights what happens to it: 我把书看完了 means “I finished reading the book.” Start with subject + 把 + object + verb + result, and make sure the verb phrase says how the object is changed, moved, completed, or otherwise dealt with.

A 被 sentence puts the person or thing affected by an action first: 受事 + 被 + 施事 + 动词短语. For example, 我被老师批评了 means “I was criticized by the teacher.” The agent—the person or thing doing the action—can sometimes be omitted, but the verb normally needs enough information to show what happened or what result was reached.

Mandarin uses 和 to join nouns, but usually uses paired patterns to show relationships between clauses: 因为……所以…… (“because…so…”), 虽然……但是…… (“although…but…”), and 如果……就…… (“if…then…”). Unlike standard English, Mandarin naturally keeps both halves of patterns such as “although…but” and “because…so.”

Chinese potential complements say whether an action can reach a particular result. Put 得 between the verb and its complement for a possible result, and 不 there for an impossible result: 看得见 “can see,” 看不见 “cannot see,” 听得懂 “can understand,” and 听不懂 “cannot understand.” The pattern is about achieving a result, not permission or learned skill in general.

Chinese can connect a state with its result using state + 得 + result or reaction. Thus 我忙得没时间吃饭 means “I am so busy that I have no time to eat,” and 他高兴得跳起来了 means “He was so happy that he jumped up.” Here 得 is pronounced de and acts as a link: what follows shows how intense the state is or what happened because of it.

Chinese can begin with the topic—what the sentence is about—and then give a comment about it: 这本书我看过 means “I’ve read this book,” literally “As for this book, I have read [it].” The topic may be an object, a person, a place, a time frame, or a broader situation. Unlike a fronted phrase in English, this arrangement is ordinary in Chinese and often needs no pronoun meaning “it” inside the comment.

A Mandarin serial verb construction (连动句, liándòngjù) places two or more related verbs under one subject, often without an equivalent of English “to,” “by,” or “and.” In 我去商店买东西, the same person goes to the store and buys things: “I go to the store to buy things.” The order of the verb phrases normally reflects their logical relationship: travel or method comes before the action it enables or serves.

In a Mandarin pivotal construction (兼语句), one person has two jobs in the sentence: that person is the object of the first verb and the understood subject of the second. In 妈妈让我做作业, 我 is the person affected by 让 and also the person who does 做作业. The basic order is subject + 让/叫/请 + person + action, with no equivalent of English to before the second verb.

A Chinese relative clause comes before the noun it describes and normally ends in 的: 我买的书 means “the book that I bought.” Chinese does not insert a word equivalent to English who, which, or that: use modifying clause + 的 + noun.

Use 是……的 (shì...de) when an action is already known or understood and you want to highlight one circumstance of it: when, where, how, or who performed it. In 我是昨天来的, the arrival is not the news; 昨天 “yesterday” is. The 是 is often omitted in an affirmative sentence, but 的 normally remains.

Chinese reduplication (repeating all or part of a word) changes its meaning or tone. A repeated verb often presents an action as brief, limited, or casual—看看 means “take a look”—whereas a repeated adjective often makes a description more vivid: 高高的 means “nice and tall,” and 高高兴兴 means “very happily” or “cheerfully.”

Mandarin normally puts an expression of duration or number of times after the verb: 学了三年 “studied for three years,” 去过两次 “have been twice.” When the verb has an object, common patterns include verb + duration/frequency + object, verb + object + verb + duration/frequency, and—especially with pronoun objects—verb + object + frequency.

Mandarin has no verb ending that corresponds directly to English will: the verb itself does not change for the future. Instead, a time expression and the context may be enough, while 会, 要, 打算, 准备, and 快要……了 show whether the speaker is making a prediction, stating an intention, describing a plan, or saying that something is imminent.

Mandarin commonly builds a conditional with a condition in the first clause and its result in the second: 如果/要是 + condition，(subject) + 就 + result. 只要…就… means “as long as…,” while 除非…才… presents a necessary condition: the result happens only if that condition is met. Unlike English, Mandarin normally does not change the verb into a special conditional form.

Use 最 + adjective for “the most”: 最高 “tallest.” Use A 跟 B 一样 + adjective for equal degree and A 没有 B（那么）+ adjective when A has less of a quality than B. 越来越 + adjective describes a quality that keeps increasing or developing over time.

Mandarin does not need a special verb form for commands: use the verb directly, add 请 for a polite request, or put 别 or 不要 before it to say “don’t.” For advice and suggestions, 吧 softens a proposal, 应该 means “should,” and 最好 means “had better” or “it would be best to.”

A complex directional complement combines an action, a path, and a viewpoint: verb + path + 来/去. In 走进来 “walk in here,” 进 means inward and 来 points toward the speaker or another chosen reference point; in 拿出去 “take out there,” 出 means outward and 去 points away. Objects may split this sequence, so word order is as important as choosing the right direction.

Use 连...都/也 to present someone or something as an unexpected or extreme case: 连他都知道 means “Even he knows.” Put 连 before the item you want to highlight and 都 or 也 before the predicate (the part that says what happens or is true). In a negative sentence, it usually means “not even”: 我连一个字也不认识 means “I do not recognize even one character.”

Use 越 A 越 B when one changing degree is linked to another: 越快越好 means “the faster, the better.” Use 越来越 + adjective or verb phrase for a trend developing over time: 天气越来越冷了 means “the weather is getting colder and colder.”

Mandarin does not rely on 被 for every passive idea. 叫 and 让 can introduce the person or thing responsible, colloquial 给 can mark an unwanted event, 受到 and 遭到 package passive-like meanings in formal language, and many sentences need no passive marker at all: 问题解决了 means “The problem has been solved.” The best choice depends on whether the agent matters, whether the event is adverse, and whether the setting is conversational or formal.

Mandarin discourse markers show how one idea relates to the larger message: 首先 introduces a first point, 其次 a second point, 另外 an addition, and 总之 a summary. 反正 signals that the speaker's conclusion will not change, while 既然…就… presents a fact as already established and draws a natural conclusion from it.

Chinese often links ideas with paired expressions: 不但……而且…… adds a stronger second point, 与其……不如…… prefers one option over another, 无论……都…… says that every possible condition has the same result, and 除了……以外…… marks an exception or an addition. Learn each pair as a complete frame, because the position of the subject and words such as 都, 也, and 还 determine how the sentence is understood.

Mandarin normally reports someone’s words by putting their message directly after a verb such as 说 “say,” 告诉 “tell,” or 问 “ask.” Unlike English, Mandarin has no automatic tense backshift: 他说他明天来 can mean “He said he would come tomorrow.” Choose the reporting verb carefully, and adjust pronouns and time expressions only when the new point of view requires it.

Mandarin directional complements can describe a figurative change rather than movement through space. After a verb or adjective, 起来 can mark a beginning or an impression, 下去 continuation, 出来 emergence or discovery, 下来 settling or preservation, and 过来 recovery or realization. Learn each combination as a meaning pattern: the best English equivalent is often not a direction word at all.

Mandarin often creates emphasis through small words placed before a verb, adjective, or quantity. 就是 can mean “precisely” or express firm insistence; 才 presents something as late, limited, or achieved only after a condition; 就 presents it as early, easy, or immediate; 再……也…… means “no matter how …, still …”; and 一……就…… means “as soon as ….”

Formal Mandarin uses connectors such as 因此 “therefore,” 然而 “however,” 此外 “furthermore,” 尽管 “although,” 由于 “due to,” and 从而 “thereby” to make logical relationships explicit. They are especially common in essays, reports, news, presentations, and careful argument. Choose the connector by its logical job—not simply because it sounds more sophisticated than an everyday word.

Modern Mandarin retains short words from Classical Chinese, especially 之, 于, 以, 而, and 所. They often correspond loosely to modern forms such as 的, 在/对, 用, “and/but,” and “what is…,” but they cannot be exchanged mechanically. At C1, learn them as parts of recurring formal patterns and fixed expressions rather than as decorative substitutes for everyday words.

Formal written Chinese favors compact, impersonal wording and precise links between actions, objects, and institutions. Common signals include 将 before a planned action, 予以 and 加以 before formal action verbs, 进行 before an activity noun, and document words such as 兹、本、该、如下. These forms are useful in notices and reports, but piling them into every sentence makes prose bureaucratic rather than polished.

Chengyu (成语, chéngyǔ) are fixed expressions, most commonly four characters long, whose established meaning may be figurative or tied to an older story. Learn each chengyu as a complete unit—including its meaning, sentence role, typical partners, and register—rather than assembling it character by character. Expressions such as 一举两得 “achieve two benefits with one action” can make Mandarin concise and vivid, but only when the context and grammar fit.

Advanced Chinese argument often gains force from paired frames: 不是……而是…… corrects a contrast, 难道……吗？ asks a question whose answer is assumed, 之所以……是因为…… foregrounds a result before its cause, and 非……不可 presents something as unavoidable. Parallel wording and an appropriate formal closing make these patterns sound deliberate rather than merely emphatic.

Business Chinese is not simply everyday Chinese with technical nouns added. Effective professional communication combines precise collocations (words that conventionally occur together), such as 签订合同 “conclude a contract,” with polite framing such as 烦请确认 “please confirm” and structured topic phrases such as 关于…… or 就……而言. The goal is clarity, appropriate formality, and a clear next action—not maximum complexity.

Chinese internet language, or 网络语言 (wǎngluò yǔyán), compresses reactions and social commentary into numbers such as 666, letter strings such as yyds, shortened phrases such as 不明觉厉, and repurposed words such as 内卷. These forms are highly dependent on community, tone, and date: learn to recognize them first, then use only those that fit the platform and audience.

Formal Chinese often compresses a whole relationship into a short frame. 以 A 为 B assigns A a role or standard, 有所 + V presents a limited or measured result, 加以 + V marks deliberate action toward something, and 之所以 P，是因为 Q puts a result before its reason. These patterns are especially useful in reports, essays, public communication, and analytical writing.

Everyday Chinese often packages attitude and narrative flow into short patterns: 什么什么的 leaves a list deliberately vague, V着V着 marks a change that occurs as an activity continues, 好不容易 stresses hard-won success, 怎么着 asks “what are we going to do?” or challenges “so what?”, and 得了 closes a topic with “enough” or “forget it.” These are strongly associated with conversation, and their meaning depends as much on tone and context as on literal words.

Classical Chinese (文言文) is highly compact: a single character often functions as a whole word, information understood from context is frequently omitted, and particles such as 之, 也, 乎, and 而 signal relationships that English usually expresses with pronouns, linking verbs, conjunctions, or punctuation. Read a clause by identifying its main content words first, then use context and particles to test possible grammatical roles rather than translating one character at a time.

“Chinese” is not a single uniform spoken system. Mandarin, Cantonese (Yue), Wu, Min, Hakka, and other regional varieties may differ enough that speakers cannot understand one another, although they share a writing tradition and much vocabulary. At C2, the practical goal is not to speak every variety, but to recognise regional signals, avoid treating Mandarin as the only valid Chinese speech, and choose terms appropriate to the speaker and setting.

Chinese news and official writing compresses information, foregrounds institutions and events, and relies on reusable formulas such as 据报道 “according to reports,” 有关部门 “the relevant departments,” and 就……进行会谈 “hold talks on….” Headlines often omit words that ordinary sentences require, while official prose favors formal verbs, nominal wording, and carefully controlled claims.

Mandarin uses 谚语 (yànyǔ, proverbs), 俗语 (súyǔ, popular sayings), and 歇后语 (xiēhòuyǔ, two-part allegorical sayings) to package experience, judgement, or humour into memorable language. Their words are often easy; the C2 challenge is interpreting the image, recognising the speaker's attitude, and judging whether the expression suits a formal essay, friendly conversation, or comic exchange.

Advanced Literary Chinese packs distinctions into very small words: 未 marks “not yet,” 勿 and 毋 issue prohibitions, 乎、哉、耶 shape questions and exclamations, and 矣、焉 help close or reframe a statement. Meaning depends on syntax and context, so the essential skill is not replacing each character with one English word, but identifying the job it performs in its clause.

Register switching means choosing Chinese that fits the relationship, medium, and purpose: 行 may sound natural between friends, 可以 is broadly neutral, and 准许 belongs to the language of granting permission. A successful shift changes more than one word. Vocabulary, sentence structure, pronouns, particles, and tone should normally move together.