Korean Grammar

The 21 Korean vowels: 10 basic vowels (ㅏ, ㅓ, ㅗ, ㅜ, ㅡ, ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅚ, ㅟ) and 11 compound vowels. Vowels combine with consonants to form syllable blocks.

The 19 Korean consonants: 14 basic (ㄱㄴㄷㄹㅁㅂㅅㅇㅈㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ) and 5 double consonants (ㄲㄸㅃㅆㅉ). Position in syllable affects pronunciation.

Korean syllables written as blocks: initial consonant + vowel (+ final consonant). Six block patterns. Final consonants (받침) affect pronunciation and grammar.

Key sound changes: final consonant linking, aspiration, nasalization, tensification. Understanding written vs. spoken Korean differences.

Korean word order: Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). Verb always at end. Topic/subject often omitted when clear. Particles mark grammatical roles.

Subject markers: 이 after consonant, 가 after vowel. Mark the grammatical subject. Used for new information, emphasis, or contrast with topic particle.

Topic markers: 은 after consonant, 는 after vowel. Mark the topic of discussion. Used for known information, contrast, and general statements.

Direct object markers: 을 after consonant, 를 after vowel. Mark what the action is done to. Often omitted in casual speech.

Location markers: 에 for static location or destination, 에서 for action location (where something happens). Critical distinction in Korean.

Pronouns vary by formality: 저/나 (I humble/casual), 당신/너 (you formal/casual), 그/그녀 (he/she). Often omitted. Names or titles preferred over pronouns.

Three-way system: 이 (this, near speaker), 그 (that, near listener or mentioned), 저 (that over there). Apply to 것 (thing), 곳 (place), 사람 (person).

Native Korean numbers 1-99: 하나, 둘, 셋, 넷... Used for counting, age, hours. Some change before counters (하나→한, 둘→두, 셋→세, 넷→네).

Sino-Korean numbers (Chinese origin): 일, 이, 삼, 사... Used for dates, money, phone numbers, minutes, months. No upper limit.

Counters (classifiers) required when counting: 개 (things), 명/분 (people), 마리 (animals), 권 (books), 잔 (cups), 병 (bottles). Number + counter + noun or noun + number + counter.

Telling time: hours use native numbers + 시, minutes use Sino-Korean + 분. Days of week, months (Sino-Korean). Time words: 오늘, 내일, 어제.

Korean verbs consist of stem + ending. Dictionary form ends in -다. Remove -다 to get stem. Stems end in vowel or consonant, affecting conjugation.

Standard polite speech level: stem + 아요 (after ㅏ/ㅗ) or 어요 (other vowels). 하다→해요. Most common everyday politeness. Contractions occur.

Formal polite speech: stem + ㅂ니다 (vowel stem) or 습니다 (consonant stem). Used in news, presentations, to strangers, formal situations.

Casual speech (반말): same as polite but without 요. Used with close friends, younger people, children. Using it inappropriately is rude.

Two negation patterns: 안 + verb (won't/don't, choice) and 못 + verb (can't, inability). Also long form: -지 않다, -지 못하다. 없다 for 'not exist'.

Past tense: stem + 았 (after ㅏ/ㅗ) or 었 (other), then add speech level ending. 하다→했. Same vowel harmony as polite ending.

Future tense and intention: stem + ㄹ 거예요 (vowel stem) or 을 거예요 (consonant stem). Also expresses plans and predictions.

Expressing desire: stem + 고 싶다 (want to do). For third person, use 고 싶어하다. 싶다 conjugates for tense and politeness.

Expressing ability: stem + ㄹ/을 수 있다 (can do). Negative: 수 없다 (cannot). Also used for possibility. Very common structure.

Korean adjectives are descriptive verbs, conjugating like action verbs. 크다 (be big), 작다 (be small). Before nouns: -(으)ㄴ form. Predicatively: regular conjugation.

이다 (to be, for nouns): 이에요/예요 (polite), 입니다 (formal). 아니다 (to not be): 아니에요/아닙니다. Attached directly to nouns.

있다 (exist/have), 없다 (not exist/not have). Used for possession, location, and existence. Subject takes 이/가. Location takes 에.

Questions formed by rising intonation (polite) or question words. Question words: 뭐/무엇 (what), 누구 (who), 어디 (where), 언제 (when), 왜 (why), 어떻게 (how).

Essential greetings: 안녕하세요 (hello), 감사합니다 (thank you), 죄송합니다 (sorry), 네/아니요 (yes/no), 잘 먹겠습니다 (before eating).

Conjunctive ending -고 (and, then): connects actions or descriptions. No tense in first clause. Final verb carries tense. Very common pattern.

Honorific suffix -(으)시 added to stem before ending to show respect for subject. Used for elders, superiors, customers. Some special honorific verbs exist.

Progressive aspect: stem + 고 있다 (be doing). Emphasizes ongoing action. 고 있다 conjugates for tense. Some verbs use -아/어 있다 for resultant state.

Time expressions: stem + 기 전에 (before doing), stem + (으)ㄴ 후에 (after doing). Also noun + 전에/후에 for time nouns.

Giving reason: stem + 아/어서 (because, so). Same vowel rules as 아/어요. Cannot use with imperative/propositive endings. First clause is cause.

Reason/cause: -(으)니까 emphasizes speaker's judgment or justification. Can be used with imperative/propositive. Stronger assertion than -아/어서.

Conditional 'if/when': stem + (으)면. Expresses conditions, hypotheticals, and temporal 'when'. Very common and versatile pattern.

Contrastive conjunction: stem + 지만 (but, although). Connects contrasting clauses. Similar to 'but' in English. Can combine with tense.

Trying/experiencing: stem + 아/어 보다 (try doing). Past form means 'have tried/experienced'. Common in recommendations and questions about experience.

Expressing obligation: stem + 아/어야 하다 or 되다 (must, have to). Negative: 지 않아도 되다 (don't have to), 면 안 되다 (must not).

Asking/giving permission: stem + 아/어도 되다 (may, is it okay). Question form for asking permission. 안 되다 for denying permission.

Making suggestions or asking opinion: stem + (으)ㄹ까요? 'Shall we/I?' or 'Do you think...?' Also for wondering about something.

Propositive (let's): formal -(으)ㅂ시다, casual -자. Used for suggesting joint action. Polite: -(으)ㄹ까요 or -(으)세요 with 같이.

Polite commands: stem + (으)세요 (please do). Casual: -아/어. Formal: -(으)십시오. Negative: -지 마세요 (please don't).

Simultaneous actions: stem + (으)면서 (while doing). Same subject for both clauses. Also can express contrast (while being X, also Y).

Reporting speech: statement -다고, question -냐고, command -라고, suggestion -자고 + 하다. Tense shown in quoted clause.

Modifying nouns: action verb uses -(으)ㄴ (past), -는 (present), -(으)ㄹ (future). Descriptive verb uses -(으)ㄴ. Complex but essential pattern.

주다 (give), 받다 (receive), 드리다 (give, humble). Direction matters. -아/어 주다 for doing a favor. -아/어 드리다 for doing favor for superior.

Special honorific words: 드시다 (eat), 주무시다 (sleep), 계시다 (exist/stay), 말씀하시다 (speak), 돌아가시다 (pass away). Replace plain verbs for respected subjects.

Humble expressions lowering oneself: 저 (I, humble), 드리다 (give), 뵙다 (see/meet), 여쭙다 (ask), 말씀드리다 (tell). Used to superiors.

Passive formation: suffix -이/히/리/기 or -아/어지다. Not all verbs have passive forms. Agent marked with 에게/한테 (by). Focus on result/state.

Causative formation: suffix -이/히/리/기/우/추 or -게 하다. Makes someone do something. Agent of caused action marked with 에게/을.

Concessive: stem + 아/어도 (even if, even though). Expresses that the result is same regardless of the condition. Similar to 'although'.

Addition/emphasis: -(으)ㄹ 뿐만 아니라 (not only... but also), -기도 하다 (also does). Expressing additional information or extent.

Retrospective marker -더- for recalling past observations. Used in -더라고요 (I noticed), -더니 (and then), -던 (that was being). Speaker witnessed the event.

Expressing degree: -(으)ㄹ 정도로 (to the extent that), -(으)ㄹ 만큼 (as much as), -게 (adverbial). Comparing or quantifying degree.

Expressing guesses and suppositions: -(으)ㄹ 것 같다 (seems like will), -(으)ㄴ/는 것 같다 (seems like is/did). Very common pattern for hedging.

Reporting what was heard: -다고 해요/하다 (they say), contracted -대요. For passing on information without personal verification. Very common in conversation.

Expressing intention or purpose: -(으)려고 하다 (intend to), -(으)려고 (in order to). Shows purpose of an action. Same subject in both clauses.

Formal/written connectives: -(으)므로 (because, formal), -(으)나 (but, formal), -거나 (or), -(으)며 (and, simultaneous, formal).

Making verbs into nouns: -기 (action/process), -(으)ㅁ (fact/state, more formal). Used with various constructions. -기 is more common in speech.

Strong affirmation through double negation: -지 않을 수 없다 (cannot not do), -지 않다고 할 수 없다. Creates emphasis in formal contexts.

Expressing contrast: -(으)ㄴ/는 반면(에) (while, on the other hand). Shows contrasting aspects of the same subject or different subjects.

Expressing indifference or 'regardless': -든(지) (whether... or), 아무... -든(지) (any... at all). Often in pairs for 'whether X or Y'.

Reporting commands: -(으)라고 하다 (told to), -지 말라고 하다 (told not to), -달라고 하다 (asked someone to do for speaker).

Nuanced particles: -마저 (even), -조차 (even, emphasizing unexpectedness), -나마 (at least), -대로 (as, according to), -만큼 (as much as).

Derived verb forms: causative (-이/히/리/기/우/구/추) makes someone do something, passive (-이/히/리/기) receives action. Many are lexicalized.

Formal written endings: -다/-ㄴ다/-는다 (plain statement), -(으)ㄴ/는 바 (regarding), -는바 (as/since). News, academic, literary styles.

Journalistic patterns: -(으)ㄴ/는 것으로 알려졌다 (it became known that), -기로 하다 (decided to), headline conventions, attribution phrases.

Nuanced honorific usage: addressee vs. referent honorifics, mixing levels appropriately, business Korean, honorific particles (께서, 께).

Literary and archaic forms: -도다 (exclamatory), -(으)리라 (will surely), -(으)리요 (would...?), -거늘 (although), found in poetry and classic literature.

Multi-part conjunctions: -기는커녕 (far from), -다시피 (as you know), -(으)ㄹ수록 (the more... the more), -(으)ㄴ/는 데다가 (in addition to).

Academic register: nominalized expressions, passive forms, hedging language (-ㄹ 수 있다, -것으로 보인다), citation patterns, and formal connectors.

Business register: formal email conventions, meeting language, corporate hierarchy terms, keigo-like business honorifics (모시다, 여쭙다).

Major Korean dialects: 경상도 (Gyeongsang - tonal), 전라도 (Jeolla), 충청도 (Chungcheong), 제주도 (Jeju - almost separate language). Recognition and key features.

All seven speech levels: 하십시오체, 해요체, 하오체, 하게체, 해체, 해라체, and their appropriate contexts. Historical and modern usage.

Historical Korean in literature: Middle Korean features, archaic vocabulary, hanja-based expressions, Sino-Korean literary phrases still used.

High-level Sino-Korean (한자어) compounds: academic, legal, medical, political vocabulary. Understanding character meanings aids comprehension.

Korean idioms (관용어) and proverbs (속담): body-based expressions, four-character idioms, folk wisdom sayings. Cultural knowledge embedded.

Pre-modern Korean features: archaic particles (이로소이다), old verb endings, Middle Korean vowel system (아래아 ㆍ), historical texts comprehension.

Modern Korean slang: abbreviated forms (갑분싸, 별다줄), internet language, generation-specific vocabulary, syllable-initial abbreviations, and social media patterns.