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Personal subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they). Used as the subject of verbs. Note: 'you' is both singular and plural, formal and informal.

The verb 'to be' (am, is, are) in present tense. Used for identity, descriptions, locations, age, time, and with adjectives. Contractions: I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, they're.

Definite article 'the' and indefinite articles 'a/an'. Use 'an' before vowel sounds (an apple, an hour). No article with plurals for general statements.

Regular plurals add -s or -es. Special patterns: -y→-ies (city→cities), -f/-fe→-ves (knife→knives). Irregular plurals: man→men, child→children, foot→feet, tooth→teeth, person→people.

The verb 'to have' (have, has) in present tense. Third person singular uses 'has'. Contractions: I've, you've, he's, she's, we've, they've. 'Have got' is common in British English.

Present simple for habits, routines, facts, and schedules. Add -s/-es for third person singular (he works, she watches). Time markers: always, usually, often, sometimes, never, every day.

Negative form with do not (don't) / does not (doesn't) + base verb. Main verb never takes -s in negative. Contractions common in speech.

Questions with Do/Does + subject + base verb. Do for I/you/we/they, Does for he/she/it. Main verb never takes -s in questions.

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. This/these for things near, that/those for things far. This/that (singular), these/those (plural).

Possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) show ownership. Come before nouns. Note: 'its' (possessive) vs 'it's' (it is).

Object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) replace noun objects. Used after verbs and prepositions.

Existential 'there' to introduce new information. There is + singular/uncountable, There are + plural. Contractions: There's. Question: Is there...? Are there...?

Basic location prepositions: in, on, at, under, behind, in front of, next to, between. At for specific points, in for enclosed spaces, on for surfaces.

Time prepositions: at (specific times), on (days/dates), in (months/years/periods). No preposition with this, next, last, every.

Modal verb 'can' for ability and permission. Same form for all persons. Negative: can't/cannot. Question: Can you...?

WH-question words: what, where, when, who, why, how. Word order: question word + auxiliary + subject + main verb. How + adjective/adverb for degree.

Question words for selection and quantity. Which for choices, How much for uncountable nouns, How many for countable nouns.

Numbers 0-100. Hyphen in compound numbers (twenty-one). Hundred without 'a' in numbers (one hundred). Ordinals for dates.

Ordinal numbers: first (1st), second (2nd), third (3rd), then -th (4th, 5th...). Irregular: fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth. Used for dates and rankings.

Telling time: o'clock, half past, quarter past/to, minutes past/to. Digital format common in American English. 'At' for specific times.

Days of the week and months always capitalized. Date formats: British (15th May), American (May 15th). On + day, in + month.

Adjectives describe nouns. No agreement (same form for singular/plural). Position: before noun (a big house) or after be (The house is big).

Frequency adverbs: always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never. Position: before main verb, after 'be'. Time expressions: every day, once a week.

Countable nouns have plurals (a book, books). Uncountable nouns have no plural (water, information, advice). Different quantifiers for each type.

Some for affirmative sentences and offers/requests. Any for negatives and questions. Some + uncountable/plural. Any in questions = general, some = expecting yes.

Commands and instructions using base verb. No subject. Negative: Don't + verb. Polite: Please + imperative. Let's for suggestions.

Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, because. Join words, phrases, or clauses. No comma before and/or in British English (often used in American).

Present continuous (am/is/are + -ing) for actions happening now, temporary situations, and future arrangements. Spelling rules: -e drops, double consonants.

Verbs not normally used in continuous: like, love, hate, want, need, know, believe, understand, remember, seem, prefer. Describe states, not actions.

Possessive 's for ownership. Add 's to singular nouns, just ' to plural nouns ending in s. Of + noun for things and long phrases.

Past simple for completed past actions. Regular verbs add -ed (worked, played). Spelling: -e→-ed, consonant-y→-ied, double final consonant. Same form for all persons.

Common irregular past forms: go→went, have→had, see→saw, do→did, say→said, make→made, take→took, come→came, get→got, give→gave, think→thought, know→knew.

Negatives with didn't + base verb. Questions with Did + subject + base verb. Main verb never changes form after did/didn't.

Past tense of 'be': was (I, he, she, it), were (you, we, they). Used for past states, descriptions, locations. There was/were for existence.

Past continuous (was/were + -ing) for ongoing past actions, background events, and interrupted actions. Often with while and when.

Present perfect (have/has + past participle) for life experiences, recent past with present relevance, unfinished time periods. With ever, never, just, already, yet.

Present perfect for unspecified/recent past with present relevance; past simple for specific completed past. Time markers help: yesterday (past), ever (perfect).

Will + base verb for predictions, spontaneous decisions, offers, promises. Contraction: I'll, won't. Same form for all persons.

Going to + base verb for plans, intentions, and predictions based on evidence. Be + going to + infinitive. More certain/planned than 'will'.

Comparing two things. Short adjectives: -er + than. Long adjectives: more + adj + than. Irregular: good→better, bad→worse, far→farther/further.

Highest degree comparison. The + -est for short adjectives, the most + adj for long. Irregular: best, worst, furthest. Often with in/of.

Should for advice and recommendations. Must for obligation and strong necessity. Mustn't for prohibition. Don't have to for lack of obligation.

Have to for external obligation. Third person: has to. Past: had to. Question/negative with do: Do you have to...? I don't have to.

Adverbs describe how something is done. Usually formed: adjective + -ly (quickly, slowly). Irregular: good→well, fast→fast, hard→hard.

Relative clauses give more information about nouns. Who for people, which for things, that for both. Defining clauses (no commas) identify the noun.

Have/has been + -ing for actions starting in past and continuing to present. Emphasizes duration. With for (duration) and since (starting point).

Had + past participle for actions completed before another past action. Often with before, after, when, by the time. Creates clear sequence in past.

If + present, will + base verb for real/possible future situations. Unless = if not. When for certain events. Other modals possible: can, might, should.

If + past simple, would + base verb for unreal/hypothetical present or future. Were (not was) with I/he/she in formal usage. For advice, imagination.

May, might, could for present/future possibility. Must, can't for deduction (certain). Degrees: must be > could/may/might be > can't be.

Be + past participle. Focus on action/recipient, not doer. Agent with 'by' (often omitted). All tenses possible: is made, was made, will be made, has been made.

Reporting what someone said. Tense backshift: present→past, past→past perfect, will→would. Say/tell. Pronoun and time changes.

Reporting questions with ask + if/whether (yes/no questions) or question word. Statement word order (no inversion). No question mark.

Where for places, when for times, whose for possession. Non-defining clauses (with commas) add extra information. Object relative pronoun can be omitted.

Used to + base verb for past habits/states no longer true. Would for repeated past actions only (not states). Be used to + noun/gerund for familiarity.

Some verbs take infinitive (want to go), some take gerund (enjoy going). Some take both with different meanings (stop to do vs stop doing). After prepositions: gerund.

Too + adjective (excessive). Adjective/adverb + enough (sufficient). Enough + noun. Too/enough + to + infinitive for result.

Verb + particle combinations with new meanings. Separable: turn on/off, pick up, put down. Inseparable: look after, get over. Common particles: up, down, on, off, out, in.

If + past perfect, would have + past participle for unreal past situations. Regrets and different outcomes. Contractions: would've, wouldn't have.

Mixing conditional types: past condition + present result (If I had studied, I would be a doctor). Present condition + past result (If I were rich, I would have bought it).

Wish/If only + past simple for present regrets. Wish + past perfect for past regrets. Wish + would for complaints about others. Stronger emotion with 'if only'.

Modal + have + past participle for past deduction/possibility. Must have (certain), might/may/could have (possible), can't/couldn't have (impossible).

Will have + past participle for actions completed before a future time. Often with by (the time), before, when. Emphasizes completion.

Will be + -ing for actions in progress at a future time. Also for scheduled future events and polite inquiries about plans.

Passive with two objects: She was given a present / A present was given to her. Have something done for services. Get + past participle.

Emphasis structures: It was John who... (cleft), What I need is... (pseudo-cleft), All I want is... The thing that... Focus on specific information.

Using -ing or -ed participles to replace relative clauses or adverbial clauses. Reduces sentence length. Having + past participle for prior action.

Subject-verb inversion for emphasis after negative adverbs: Never have I..., Not only...but also, Hardly/Scarcely...when, No sooner...than, Little did I know.

Formal subjunctive: base verb after verbs of suggestion/demand (suggest that he go), in fixed expressions (if need be, come what may). Were in all persons for hypotheticals.

Nuanced modal expressions: be bound to (certain), be supposed to (expectation), be meant to (purpose), be to (formal arrangements), would rather, had better.

Reporting verbs in passive: It is said that... / He is said to be... Subject + passive + infinitive. Various tenses with infinitives (to be doing, to have done).

Connectors for sophisticated argumentation: nevertheless, nonetheless, hence, thus, furthermore, moreover, consequently, notwithstanding, albeit.

Omitting words to avoid repetition. Auxiliary substitution (do so, did too). So/neither + auxiliary for agreement. If so/not constructions.

Clauses functioning as nouns: What he said was true (subject), I know what you mean (object), The problem is that... (complement). That-clauses, wh-clauses.

Academic caution: tend to, appear to, seem to, somewhat, rather, relatively, to some extent. It could be argued that..., One might suggest...

Complex phrasal verbs with multiple particles: come up with, put up with, look forward to, make up for, get away with, do away with, come up against.

Historical present for narrative effect, future perfect continuous, rare aspectual distinctions. Archaic forms: doth, hath, thou. Style in literature.

Formal/legal: hereby, thereof, wherein, henceforth, notwithstanding. Archaic pronouns and verb forms. Recognition in historical and legal texts.

British vs American grammar: have got vs have, shall vs will, collective nouns (sing vs pl). Regional features: double negatives, ain't, y'all, innit.

Stylistic constructions: rhetorical questions, litotes (not bad = good), hyperbole, understatement. Parallelism, chiasmus, antithesis for effect.

Academic conventions: passive preference, hedging, nominalization. Formal vs informal register. Latin abbreviations: e.g., i.e., etc., viz., cf.

Complex idiomatic expressions: be at sixes and sevens, have an axe to grind, add insult to injury, once in a blue moon, the ball is in your court.

Strong word partnerships: make a decision (not do), heavy rain (not strong), raise a question, pose a threat, commit a crime, draw a conclusion.

Recognizing and using appropriate register: formal/informal, written/spoken, technical/general. Code-switching for audience and context.