Spanish Grammar

Personal subject pronouns (yo, tú, él/ella/usted, nosotros/as, vosotros/as, ellos/ellas/ustedes). Includes formal usted/ustedes and regional variation with vosotros (Spain) vs ustedes (Latin America).

Grammatical gender (masculine/feminine) of Spanish nouns. Most nouns ending in -o are masculine, -a are feminine. Important exceptions: el problema, el día, la mano, la foto.

Regular plural: add -s to vowels, -es to consonants. Words ending in -z change to -ces. Stress shifts may require accent changes (examen→exámenes).

Definite articles (el, la, los, las) that agree in gender and number with the noun. El is used with feminine nouns starting with stressed a/ha (el agua, el águila).

Indefinite articles (un, una, unos, unas) meaning 'a/an' (singular) or 'some' (plural). Often omitted with professions, nationalities, and after ser without adjectives.

Irregular verb 'ser' (soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son) for identity, origin, profession, time, characteristics, and possession. Essential distinction from 'estar'.

Irregular verb 'estar' (estoy, estás, está, estamos, estáis, están) for location, temporary states, feelings, progressive tenses, and results of actions.

Basic distinction: ser for permanent/inherent qualities, estar for temporary states/locations. Some adjectives change meaning: ser listo (clever) vs estar listo (ready).

Irregular verb 'tener' (tengo, tienes, tiene, tenemos, tenéis, tienen) and idiomatic expressions: tener hambre/sed/frío/calor/sueño/miedo/razón/prisa/años.

Present tense conjugation of regular -ar verbs (hablar, trabajar, estudiar, comprar). Largest verb class. Endings: -o, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, -an.

Present tense conjugation of regular -er verbs (comer, beber, leer, correr). Endings: -o, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, -en.

Present tense conjugation of regular -ir verbs (vivir, escribir, abrir, subir). Endings: -o, -es, -e, -imos, -ís, -en.

Highly irregular verb 'ir' (voy, vas, va, vamos, vais, van). Used for motion and to form near future (ir a + infinitive). Takes preposition 'a' before destinations.

Irregular verb 'hacer' (hago, haces, hace, hacemos, hacéis, hacen) with weather expressions (hace calor/frío/sol/viento) and common phrases (hacer deporte, hacer la cama).

Modal verb 'poder' (puedo, puedes, puede, podemos, podéis, pueden) with stem change o→ue. Expresses ability, permission, or possibility + infinitive.

Irregular verb 'querer' (quiero, quieres, quiere, queremos, queréis, quieren) with stem change e→ie. Expresses desire, love. Used with infinitive or noun.

Verbs with e→ie stem change in stressed syllables: pensar, entender, preferir, empezar, cerrar. Change in all forms except nosotros/vosotros.

Verbs with o→ue stem change in stressed syllables: dormir, volver, encontrar, recordar, contar. Change in all forms except nosotros/vosotros.

Verbs with reflexive pronouns (me, te, se, nos, os, se): llamarse, levantarse, acostarse, vestirse, ducharse. Pronoun agrees with subject.

Impersonal form 'hay' for existence ('there is/are'). Invariable for singular and plural. Negative: no hay. Question: ¿Hay...?

Negation with 'no' before the verb. Double negatives are standard: no...nada, no...nadie, no...nunca. 'No' can also mean 'not' in answers.

Adjective agreement: -o/-a/-os/-as for four-form adjectives, -e/-es for two-form. Most adjectives follow the noun. Some have only one form (joven, azul).

Most adjectives follow the noun, but some common ones precede: bueno, malo, grande, pequeño, nuevo, viejo, joven. Some change meaning by position.

Short-form possessives before nouns: mi(s), tu(s), su(s), nuestro/a/os/as, vuestro/a/os/as, su(s). Only nuestro/vuestro show gender.

Three-level system: este/esta/estos/estas (this/these near speaker), ese/esa/esos/esas (that/those near listener), aquel/aquella/aquellos/aquellas (that/those far from both).

Basic location prepositions: en (in/on/at), de (from/of), a (to), con (with), sin (without), entre (between), sobre (on/about), debajo de (under), delante de (in front of), detrás de (behind).

The preposition 'a' before direct objects that are specific people, personified animals, or pronouns like alguien/nadie. Essential Spanish-specific feature.

Mandatory contractions: a + el = al, de + el = del. No contractions with la, los, las, or when 'el' is part of a proper name (de El Salvador).

Question words (all with accents): quién (who), qué (what), dónde (where), cuándo (when), cómo (how), por qué (why). Yes/no questions use intonation or inversion.

Question words for quantity: cuánto/a/os/as (how much/many), cuál/cuáles (which/what). Cuánto agrees in gender/number; cuál often replaces qué before ser.

Cardinal numbers 0-100. Uno becomes un before masculine nouns. 16-29 are single words (dieciséis, veintidós). Cien before nouns, ciento in compounds.

Ordinal numbers 1st-10th: primero, segundo, tercero, cuarto, quinto, sexto, séptimo, octavo, noveno, décimo. Agree in gender/number. Primero/tercero drop -o before masculine nouns.

Telling time (¿Qué hora es? Es la una. Son las dos.), days of the week (lowercase), months, expressing dates. Uses definite article with days for habitual actions.

Adverbs of frequency (siempre, a menudo, a veces, raramente, nunca) and time (hoy, mañana, ayer, ahora, luego, primero, después, entonces).

Adverbs of place: aquí/acá (here), ahí (there near you), allí/allá (there far), cerca (near), lejos (far), dentro (inside), fuera (outside), arriba (up), abajo (down).

Quantity words: mucho/a/os/as and poco/a/os/as agree with nouns; muy (very) and mucho (much) are invariable with adjectives/adverbs. Note: muy + adjective, but mucho + verb.

Direct object pronouns (me, te, lo/la, nos, os, los/las) replace direct objects. Placed before conjugated verbs, attached to infinitives/gerunds/affirmative commands.

Indirect object pronouns (me, te, le, nos, os, les) for 'to/for someone'. Placed before verb. Often used with clarifying 'a + pronoun/noun' (Le doy el libro a María).

Special construction where the thing liked is the subject: me gusta (I like it), me gustan (I like them). Uses indirect object pronouns + gusta/gustan. Also: encantar, interesar, molestar.

Common coordinating conjunctions: y/e (and - e before i/hi), o/u (or - u before o/ho), pero (but), sino (but rather), porque (because), así que (so).

Simple past for completed actions at a specific time. Regular endings: -AR (-é, -aste, -ó, -amos, -asteis, -aron), -ER/-IR (-í, -iste, -ió, -imos, -isteis, -ieron). Many irregular verbs.

Common irregular preterites: ser/ir (fui), estar (estuve), tener (tuve), hacer (hice), decir (dije), venir (vine), poder (pude), poner (puse), saber (supe), querer (quise), traer (traje).

Compound past tense with haber (he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han) + past participle (-ado/-ido). For past actions with present relevance. More common in Spain than Latin America.

Common irregular participles: hacer→hecho, escribir→escrito, ver→visto, decir→dicho, poner→puesto, volver→vuelto, abrir→abierto, morir→muerto, romper→roto.

Past tense for habitual actions, descriptions, ongoing states. Regular endings: -AR (-aba, -abas...), -ER/-IR (-ía, -ías...). Only three irregulars: ser (era), ir (iba), ver (veía).

Immediate future formed with ir a + infinitive. Expresses planned or imminent actions. Voy a comer, vas a estudiar, va a llover.

Progressive tense with estar + gerund (-ando/-iendo). For actions in progress. Gerund never changes form. Stem-changing -ir verbs: e→i, o→u (durmiendo, pidiendo).

Basic distinction: para for purpose/destination/deadline, por for cause/exchange/duration/movement through. Common expressions: por favor, por eso, para siempre.

Comparative forms: más...que (more than), menos...que (less than), tan...como (as...as), tanto/a/os/as...como (as much/many as). Irregulars: mejor, peor, mayor, menor.

Affirmative commands: tú (third person singular), usted/ustedes (subjunctive forms), nosotros (subjunctive), vosotros (-ar→-ad, -er→-ed, -ir→-id). Pronouns attach to end.

Basic relative pronouns: que (who/which/that - most common), quien/quienes (who - for people, after prepositions). Que is invariable; quien has plural.

Order: indirect + direct (me lo, te la, etc.). Le/les become se before lo/la/los/las. Te lo doy. Se lo dije (not *le lo).

Reflexive verbs in preterite and present perfect. Pronoun placement same as present. Agreement in perfect tense participle is NOT required (unlike French/Italian).

Future tense formed with infinitive + endings (-é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án). Irregular stems: tener→tendr-, salir→saldr-, poder→podr-, saber→sabr-, hacer→har-, decir→dir-, venir→vendr-.

Conditional formed with infinitive + imperfect endings of haber (-ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían). Same irregular stems as future. Used for polite requests, hypotheticals.

Contrast between tenses: indefinido for completed actions at specific times, imperfecto for background, habits, descriptions, ongoing past. Often used together in narratives.

Subjunctive mood for wishes, doubts, emotions, requests after que. Formed from yo stem: -AR (-e, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, -en), -ER/-IR (-a, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, -an). Irregulars: ser, estar, ir, haber, saber, dar.

Expressions requiring subjunctive: querer que, esperar que, es necesario que, es posible que, ojalá, antes de que, para que, aunque (uncertainty), cuando (future).

Past-before-past tense: imperfect of haber (había, habías, había, habíamos, habíais, habían) + past participle. For actions completed before another past action.

Superlative forms: el/la/los/las más/menos + adjective (+ de). Irregular: el mejor (the best), el peor (the worst), el mayor (the oldest), el menor (the youngest). Absolute superlative: -ísimo/a.

Additional relative pronouns: donde (where), el/la/los/las cual/cuales (which - formal, after prepositions), lo que/cual (what/which - referring to ideas).

Passive formed with ser + past participle (agrees with subject). Agent introduced by por. Often replaced by passive se (se habla español) or active voice in Spanish.

Negative commands use subjunctive for all persons. No + subjunctive form. Pronouns precede the verb. ¡No hables! ¡No lo hagas!

Reported speech with verbs like decir, preguntar, responder. Changes: que for statements, si for yes/no questions. Tense backshift when reporting verb is past.

Impersonal expressions: hay que + infinitive (one must), se puede (one can), es necesario/importante/posible + infinitive or que + subjunctive. Se impersonal constructions.

If-then constructions: Si + present → future/imperative (real), Si + imperfect subjunctive → conditional (unreal present). Por si acaso, como si.

Complex ser/estar distinctions: adjectives changing meaning (listo, malo, bueno, aburrido, vivo, muerto), passive ser vs resultant estar, personality vs mood.

Extended gerund uses: seguir/continuar + gerund (keep doing), llevar + time + gerund (have been doing for), ir + gerund (gradual action). Never as noun (use infinitive).

Past subjunctive from third person plural preterite: -ra/-se endings (cantara/cantase, comiera/comiese). Used after past tense verbs, in unreal conditionals, with ojalá for unlikely wishes.

Present perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of haber (haya, hayas...) + past participle. For past actions in subjunctive contexts when main verb is present.

Conditional perfect: conditional of haber (habría, habrías...) + past participle. For hypotheticals about the past, regrets. Habría querido, habrían venido.

Third conditional: Si + pluperfect subjunctive → conditional perfect. For contrary-to-fact past situations. Mixed conditionals also possible.

Past perfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of haber (hubiera/hubiese) + past participle. For past hypotheticals, wishes about the past, after certain expressions.

Nuanced por/para uses: por in passive agents, exchanges, rates, emotions; para for opinions, comparisons with standards. Expressions: estar para, estar por.

Possessive relative 'cuyo/a/os/as' (whose) agrees with the noun it modifies, not the antecedent. Formal register. La mujer cuyo hijo... (whose son).

Future perfect: future of haber (habré, habrás...) + past participle. For actions completed before a future point, or for probability about past events.

Time clauses with cuando, mientras, antes de que (+ subj), después de que, hasta que (+ subj for future), en cuanto, tan pronto como. Subjunctive for future reference.

Formation: feminine adjective + -mente (lentamente, rápidamente). With multiple adverbs, only last takes -mente (lenta y cuidadosamente). Position and emphasis patterns.

Multiple verbs for 'become': ponerse (emotions, temporary), volverse (gradual, permanent), hacerse (deliberate effort), convertirse en (transformation), quedarse (resulting state), llegar a ser (achievement).

Literary past perfect: preterite of haber (hube, hubiste...) + past participle. Used after apenas, cuando, después de que in literary texts. Rare in modern usage.

Archaic future subjunctive (cantare, comiere) from Latin. Survives only in legal texts, proverbs, and set expressions. Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres.

Complex tense agreement in subordinate clauses. Literary vs modern usage. Main clause in past → subordinate in imperfect/pluperfect subjunctive. Exception patterns.

Regional pronoun variation: leísmo (le for masculine direct object - accepted in Spain), laísmo (la for feminine indirect object), loísmo (lo for masculine indirect object). Standard vs regional norms.

Complex verb constructions: volver a + inf (do again), dejar de + inf (stop), acabar de + inf (just did), ponerse a + inf (start suddenly), deber de + inf (probability), llegar a + inf (manage to).

Formal vocabulary and constructions: mediante, no obstante, en virtud de, a tenor de, en aras de. Business and legal language patterns. Subjunctive in formal contexts.

Converting verbs/adjectives to nouns for formal style: desarrollar→desarrollo, posible→posibilidad. Common suffixes: -ción, -miento, -dad, -ncia. Academic and journalistic writing.

Se + third person verb for passive meaning. Distinction from impersonal se. Agreement: Se venden coches (cars are sold) vs Se vive bien aquí (one lives well here).

Emphatic constructions: es...lo que/quien (cleft sentences), lo que...es (pseudo-cleft), sí que (emphatic affirmation), ni siquiera (not even), topicalization.

Affective suffixes: -ito/a (affection, smallness), -illo/a (slight disparagement), -ón/ona (augmentative), -azo (augmentative/blow), -ote (pejorative large). Regional variation.

Subtle indicative/subjunctive contrasts: no creo que (subj) vs creo que no (ind), aunque + ind (fact) vs subj (hypothetical), el hecho de que (both possible with nuance).

Differences across Spanish-speaking regions: voseo (Argentina, Central America), ustedes replacing vosotros (Latin America), vocabulary differences (coche/carro/auto, ordenador/computadora).

Informal spoken Spanish: interjections (¡venga!, ¡vale!, ¡hombre!), intensifiers (súper, mogollón, tío/tía), truncation (profe, bici), filler words (pues, o sea, bueno).

Advanced subordination: multiple embedded clauses, correlative conjunctions (no solo...sino también, tanto...como, ya...ya), suspended clauses, parenthetical insertions.

Stylistic constructions: litotes (understatement), hyperbole, rhetorical questions, chiasmus, anaphora. Sentence fragmenting for effect, suspense building.

Advanced connectors for argumentation: sin embargo, no obstante, en cambio, por el contrario, a fin de cuentas, en resumidas cuentas, dicho sea de paso.

Bureaucratic and legal Spanish: passive constructions, nominalization, technical terms, formal closings, fixed expressions in official documents. Gerundive abuse avoidance.

Fixed expressions and idioms: no dar pie con bola, estar en las nubes, costar un ojo de la cara, ir al grano, tener mala pata, ponerse las pilas, echar una mano.