中国語の文法

The 21 initial consonants in Mandarin pinyin romanization. Includes aspirated/unaspirated pairs (b/p, d/t, g/k) and retroflex sounds (zh, ch, sh, r).

Vowel combinations (finals) in pinyin: simple vowels (a, o, e, i, u, ü), compound finals (ai, ei, ao, ou), and nasal finals (an, en, ang, eng, ong).

Mandarin's four tones plus neutral tone: 1st (high flat), 2nd (rising), 3rd (dipping), 4th (falling). Tone marks: ā á ǎ à. Tone changes meaning.

Tone changes in context: 3rd + 3rd → 2nd + 3rd (你好 nǐhǎo → níhǎo), 不 (bù) before 4th → bú, 一 (yī) changes based on following tone.

Chinese character components: radicals (部首), stroke order rules, character types (pictographs, ideographs, compounds). Building blocks for reading.

Semantic components indicating meaning category: 氵(water), 木 (wood), 口 (mouth), 女 (woman), 言 (speech), 心 (heart). Key to character learning.

Basic pronouns: 我 (I), 你 (you), 他/她/它 (he/she/it), 我们 (we), 你们 (you pl), 他们 (they). Add 的 for possessive. No case changes.

Chinese word order: Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). No verb conjugation. Topic-comment structure common. Time before place before manner.

The verb 是 (shì) for identity/classification: A 是 B (A is B). Negation: 不是. Not used with adjectives (unlike English 'is').

The verb 有 (yǒu) for possession and existence: 我有... (I have), 这里有... (there is here). Negation: 没有 (not 不有).

Adjectives as predicates use 很 (hěn) as default (not necessarily meaning 'very'): 他很高 (He is tall). Without 很, implies comparison.

Two negation words: 不 (bù) for habits, states, future; 没(有) (méi) for past actions and 有. 不 changes to bú before 4th tone.

Add 吗 (ma) to statement end for yes/no questions. No word order change needed. Answer by repeating verb (affirmative) or 不/没 + verb (negative).

Question words stay in place (no fronting): 什么 (what), 谁 (who), 哪里/哪儿 (where), 什么时候 (when), 怎么 (how), 为什么 (why), 几/多少 (how many).

Demonstratives: 这 (zhè - this), 那 (nà - that). Combined with 个 or measure words: 这个 (this one), 那本书 (that book). 这里/那里 (here/there).

Numbers: 一 to 十, then 十一, 十二... 二十, 二十一... 一百. 二 vs 两 (两 before measure words). Simple and logical system.

Classifiers required between number/demonstrative and noun: 个 (general), 本 (books), 张 (flat things), 杯 (cups), 只 (animals). Num + MW + Noun.

Time words come before the verb: 今天 (today), 明天 (tomorrow), 昨天 (yesterday), 现在 (now). Clock time: 几点 (what time), 三点 (3 o'clock).

Location words: 上 (on), 下 (under), 里/内 (in), 外 (out), 前 (front), 后 (back), 左 (left), 右 (right). Combined: 上面, 里面, etc.

在 (zài) indicates location: 在 + place (be at), 在 + place + verb (do something at). Existence: place + 有. Position critical.

High-frequency verbs: 是 (be), 有 (have), 去 (go), 来 (come), 吃 (eat), 喝 (drink), 看 (see/read), 听 (listen), 说 (speak), 做 (do), 买 (buy), 要 (want).

Modal verbs before main verb: 会 (can/know how), 能 (can/able), 可以 (may/can), 要 (want/will), 想 (want/think), 应该 (should).

Common phrases: 你好 (hello), 谢谢 (thanks), 不客气 (you're welcome), 对不起 (sorry), 没关系 (it's okay), 再见 (goodbye).

Particle 的 (de) marks possession and modification: 我的书 (my book), 中国的文化 (China's culture). Can be omitted with close relationships.

Common prepositions: 从 (from), 到 (to/until), 向 (toward), 对 (to/toward), 跟 (with), 给 (for/to), 离 (from/distance). Prepositions come before their objects.

Simple connectors: 和 (and, for nouns), 也 (also), 都 (all/both), 还 (also/still), 又 (again/both), 或者 (or). 和 cannot connect clauses.

Adverbs before verbs: 很 (very), 太 (too), 真 (really), 就 (then/precisely), 才 (only then/only), 已经 (already), 常常 (often), 一直 (always/continuously).

Chinese distinguishes paternal/maternal, older/younger relatives. 爸爸/妈妈 (dad/mom), 哥哥/姐姐 (older brother/sister), 弟弟/妹妹 (younger brother/sister).

Currency: 元/块 (yuan), 角/毛 (jiao), 分 (fen). Shopping phrases: 多少钱 (how much), 太贵了 (too expensive), 便宜一点 (cheaper).

Weather: 天气 (weather), 热/冷 (hot/cold), 下雨/下雪 (rain/snow). Seasons: 春天, 夏天, 秋天, 冬天 (spring, summer, autumn, winter).

Aspect particle 了 after verb indicates completed action: 我吃了 (I ate). Different from sentence-final 了 (change of state). Can combine.

Sentence-final 了 indicates new situation or change: 下雨了 (It's raining now). 太...了 (too...), 快要...了 (about to). Different from verb 了.

Aspect particle 过 after verb for past experience: 我去过中国 (I've been to China). Negation: 没...过. Focus on having had the experience.

Aspect particle 着 after verb for ongoing state or manner: 门开着 (door is open), 他站着 (he's standing). Often with 正在...呢 for actions in progress.

在/正在 + verb for action in progress: 我在吃饭 (I'm eating). Often with sentence-final 呢. Similar to English '-ing'.

Comparative structure: A 比 B + adj. No 很 in comparison. For 'more' use 更. Degree words: 一点儿, 多了, 得多.

Verb + result complement shows outcome: 看见 (see-perceive), 听懂 (listen-understand), 做完 (do-finish). Complements: 完, 好, 到, 见, 懂, 错.

Verb + direction shows movement: 来/去 (come/go), 上/下 (up/down), 进/出 (in/out), 回 (back). Compound: 上来, 下去, 进来, 出去.

Verb + 得 + description shows degree/manner of action: 说得很好 (speak very well), 跑得快 (run fast). Negative: 得不... Object moves before verb.

Three 'de' particles: 的 (noun modifier), 地 (adverb marker before verb), 得 (complement marker after verb). Sound same, different functions.

把 + object + verb (+ complement) for disposal/action on object. Object must be definite. Verb needs complement or other element. 把书放在桌子上.

Passive with 被: subject + 被 (+ agent) + verb. Often implies negative outcome. Agent optional. 叫/让 also used for passive/causative.

Connecting words: 和 (and, nouns), 但是/可是 (but), 因为...所以 (because...so), 虽然...但是 (although...but), 如果...就 (if...then).

Verb + 得/不 + complement for ability/possibility: 看得见 (can see), 听不懂 (can't understand). Affirmative: 得, Negative: 不. Very common pattern.

Verb + 得 + adj phrase for resulting state or intensity: 热得受不了 (so hot can't stand it), 高兴得跳起来 (so happy jumped up).

Topic fronted for emphasis: topic + comment. Topic can be object, time, place. 这本书我看过 (This book, I've read). Common in Chinese.

Multiple verbs in sequence: 去商店买东西 (go to store buy things). Verbs share subject, happen in order. Common pattern for expressing purpose.

Subj + V1 + person + V2: 让/叫/请 (make/ask), 帮 (help). First verb's object is second verb's subject: 我请他吃饭 (I invite him to eat).

Modifying clause + 的 + noun (clause before noun, opposite of English): 我买的书 (the book that I bought), 说中文的人 (person who speaks Chinese).

是...的 emphasizes circumstances of past action (time, place, manner, agent): 我是昨天来的 (I came yesterday - emphasis on when). 是 can be omitted.

Reduplication for brief/casual action (verb) or intensification (adj): 看看 (take a look), 高高的 (tall tall = very tall). Pattern: AA, AABB, ABAB.

Duration after verb: 学了三年 (studied 3 years). Frequency with 次/遍: 去过两次 (been twice). With object: V + time + O or V + O + V + time.

Expressing future: 会 (will, prediction), 要 (will, intention), 打算 (plan to), 准备 (prepare to), 快要...了 (about to). No future tense marker per se.

Conditionals: 如果...就 (if...then), 要是...就 (if...then, colloquial), 只要...就 (as long as...then), 除非...才 (unless...only then).

Superlative: 最 + adj (most). Equivalence: A 跟 B 一样 + adj (A is as... as B). Not as: A 没有 B + adj. Gradual change: 越来越.

Suggestions: 吧 (softer), 别 (don't), 应该 (should), 最好 (had better). Imperative with 请 (please). Prohibitions with 不要/别.

Three-part directional complements: V + direction + 来/去. Object placement varies: 走进来, 拿出去. With 起来, 下去 for figurative meanings.

Emphatic 'even': 连...都/也 (even... also). Emphasizes unexpected inclusion: 连他都知道 (even he knows). Strong emphasis pattern.

Progressive correlation: 越...越... (the more... the more). 越来越 (more and more). Expresses gradual increase or proportional change.

Beyond 被: 叫/让 (by, often negative), 给 (colloquial), 受到 (receive, formal), 遭到 (suffer). Notional passive (no marker) also common.

Connectors for complex discourse: 首先 (first), 其次 (second), 另外 (in addition), 总之 (in short), 反正 (anyway), 既然...就 (since...then).

Set patterns: 不但...而且 (not only...but also), 与其...不如 (rather than...better to), 无论...都 (no matter...all), 除了...以外 (except/besides).

Reporting speech: 说 (say), 告诉 (tell), 问 (ask), 觉得/认为 (think). No tense shift like English. Direct quotes use colon and quotation marks.

Figurative use of directional complements: 起来 (begin/seem), 下去 (continue), 出来 (figure out), 下来 (settle down), 过来 (regain consciousness).

Emphatic structures: 就是 (precisely), 才 vs 就 (only then vs already), 再...也 (no matter how...still), 一...就 (as soon as).

Written/formal linking: 因此 (therefore), 然而 (however), 此外 (furthermore), 尽管 (despite), 由于 (due to), 从而 (thereby).

Classical elements in modern Chinese: 之 (的), 于 (在/对), 以 (用), 而 (and/but), 所 (that which). Common in formal writing, idioms, names.

Written register: 将 (把 formal), 予以 (give), 进行 (carry out), 加以 (apply), 予 (give). More classical elements, longer sentences.

Chengyu (成语): fixed four-character expressions with classical origins. Often allusive, metaphorical. Essential for advanced fluency: 一举两得 (kill two birds with one stone).

Rhetorical devices: parallelism (对仗), rhetorical questions, emphatic constructions, formal closings. Used in speeches, essays, formal writing.

Business vocabulary and structures: 合同 (contract), 谈判 (negotiate), 投资 (invest). Formal email/letter conventions, meeting language.

Online Chinese: 666 (amazing), 233 (laughing), 不明觉厉 (abbreviations), homophone puns, number-based expressions. Rapidly evolving vocabulary.

Advanced patterns: 以...为 (take...as), 有所 (have some), 加以 (apply to), 之所以...是因为 (the reason why...is because). Formal writing essentials.

Spoken-only patterns: 什么什么的 (and so on), V着V着 (while V-ing), 好不容易 (with great difficulty), 怎么着 (what/so what), 得了 (that's enough).

Literary Chinese (文言文) fundamentals: different grammar, vocabulary, one-character words. Reading classical texts, poetry, and historical documents.

Major dialect groups: Cantonese (粤语), Wu (吴语/Shanghai), Min (闽语/Hokkien), Hakka (客家). Understanding regional variation, loanwords, influence on Mandarin.

Journalistic and official Chinese: headline conventions, passive voice, formal vocabulary, political terminology. Reading news, government documents.

Folk sayings (谚语), colloquial idioms (俗语), two-part allegorical sayings (歇后语). Cultural wisdom embedded in language.

Advanced literary Chinese: archaic negation (未/勿/莫/毋), interrogative particles (乎/哉/耶), sentence-final particles (矣/焉), and classical conditionals.

Mastering register shifts: 书面语 vs 口语, formal vs colloquial vocabulary pairs, adjusting style for audience and context. Key pairs: 可以/行, 非常/特别.