斯瓦希里语语法

Independent personal pronouns: mimi (I), wewe (you), yeye (he/she), sisi (we), ninyi (you pl.), wao (they). Used for emphasis; subject is usually marked on the verb.

The most common noun class for people. Singular prefix m-/mw-, plural wa-. Examples: mtu/watu (person/people), mwalimu/walimu (teacher/teachers). Agreement affects verbs, adjectives, and pronouns.

Noun class for trees, plants, and some objects. Singular m-/mw-, plural mi-. Examples: mti/miti (tree/trees), mkate/mikate (bread/breads). Different agreement patterns from class 1/2.

Class for tools, objects, languages, and diminutives. Singular ki-/ch-, plural vi-/vy-. Examples: kiti/viti (chair/chairs), kitabu/vitabu (book/books), Kiswahili (the Swahili language).

Class for animals, many borrowed words, and some abstract nouns. Same form for singular and plural. Prefixes: n-/m-/ny- or zero prefix. Examples: nyumba (house/houses), ndege (bird/birds).

Essential Swahili greetings varying by time of day and formality: habari (news/how are you), shikamoo (respectful to elders), karibu (welcome), asante (thanks), tafadhali (please).

Present tense formed with subject prefix + -na- + verb root. Subject prefixes: ni- (I), u- (you), a- (he/she), tu- (we), m- (you pl.), wa- (they). Indicates ongoing action.

The copula 'to be': ni (is/am/are, affirmative), si (is not). For past and future, use kuwa with tense markers. Ni links subject and predicate directly without conjugation.

Kuna (there is/are) and hakuna (there is not/are not) express existence. Used with locative references. Hakuna matata means 'no worries/there are no problems'.

Possession expressed with -a agreeing with the noun class of the possessed noun: wa (class 1), ya (class 9), cha (class 7), etc. Links possessor and possessed.

Adjectives agree with the noun class of the noun they modify, taking the class prefix: mtu mzuri (good person), kitu kizuri (good thing), nyumba nzuri (good house).

Swahili numbers: moja (1), mbili (2), tatu (3), nne (4), tano (5), sita (6), saba (7), nane (8), tisa (9), kumi (10). Numbers 1-5 and 8 agree with noun class.

Question words: nani (who), nini (what), wapi (where), lini (when), kwa nini (why), vipi/jinsi gani (how), ngapi (how many). Questions often keep the same word order as statements.

Negation uses the prefix ha- combined with modified subject prefixes: si- (I don't), hu- (you don't), ha- (he/she doesn't), hatu- (we don't). Present negative also adds -i ending.

Three-way demonstrative system agreeing with noun class: h- prefix (this, near), h-o (that, near listener), -le (that, far). Examples: huyu/huyo/yule (class 1), hiki/hicho/kile (class 7).

Common prepositions: katika/ndani ya (in), juu ya (on/above), chini ya (under), mbele ya (in front of), nyuma ya (behind), kati ya (between), karibu na (near).

Family vocabulary: baba (father), mama (mother), kaka/ndugu (brother), dada (sister), babu (grandfather), bibi/nyanya (grandmother), mtoto (child), mke/mume (wife/husband).

Common foods and drinks: chai (tea), kahawa (coffee), maji (water), wali (rice), nyama (meat), samaki (fish), matunda (fruits), mboga (vegetables), ugali (maize porridge).

Body parts: kichwa (head), mkono (arm/hand), mguu (leg/foot), jicho/macho (eye/eyes), sikio/masikio (ear/ears), mdomo (mouth), tumbo (stomach), moyo (heart).

Essential everyday verbs: -enda (go), -ja/kuja (come), -la/kula (eat), -nywa (drink), -soma (read/study), -andika (write), -lala (sleep), -amka (wake up), -penda (love/like).

Daily routine vocabulary: kuamka (to wake up), kuoga (to bathe), kupika (to cook), kufanya kazi (to work), kurudi (to return), kupumzika (to rest), kulala (to sleep).

Common animals: simba (lion), tembo/ndovu (elephant), ng'ombe (cow), kuku (chicken), mbwa (dog), paka (cat), nyoka (snake), samaki (fish), ndege (bird).

Weather and nature: jua (sun), mvua (rain), upepo (wind), mawingu (clouds), joto (hot), baridi (cold), mti (tree), bahari (sea/ocean), mto (river).

Possessive pronouns agree with noun class: -angu (my), -ako (your), -ake (his/her), -etu (our), -enu (your pl.), -ao (their). Class agreement: kitabu changu, nyumba yangu, watoto wangu.

Days of the week: Jumatatu (Monday), Jumanne (Tuesday), Jumatano (Wednesday), Alhamisi (Thursday), Ijumaa (Friday), Jumamosi (Saturday), Jumapili (Sunday). Time: saa (hour/clock), asubuhi (morning), mchana (afternoon), jioni (evening), usiku (night).

Colors (some are adjectives agreeing with noun class, others are invariable nouns): -eupe (white), -eusi (black), -ekundu (red), -a kijani (green), -a buluu (blue), -a njano (yellow).

Basic health and emotion vocabulary: mgonjwa (sick), -zima (healthy), furaha (happiness), huzuni (sadness), -choka (tired), njaa (hunger), kiu (thirst), maumivu (pain).

Common occupations (mostly M-/Wa- class): mwalimu (teacher), daktari (doctor), mfanyakazi (worker), mkulima (farmer), muuza (seller), dereva (driver), mpishi (cook), fundi (craftsman).

Clothing: nguo (clothes), shati (shirt), suruali (pants), viatu (shoes), kofia (hat), kanga (cloth wrap). Shopping: -nunua (buy), -uza (sell), bei (price), duka (shop).

Transport vocabulary: gari (car), basi (bus), pikipiki (motorcycle), baisikeli (bicycle), ndege (airplane), meli (ship), treni (train), daladala (minibus). Verbs: -safiri (travel), -endesha (drive).

Past tense formed with subject prefix + -li- + verb root. Indicates completed action: nilisoma (I read/studied), alikuja (he/she came). Negative past uses -ku-: sikusoma (I did not read).

Perfect tense with -me- indicates a completed action with present relevance: nimekula (I have eaten), amefika (he/she has arrived). Negative: -ja- (not yet): sijala (I have not yet eaten).

Future tense formed with subject prefix + -ta- + verb root: nitasoma (I will read), atakuja (he/she will come). Negative: hata-: sitasoma (I will not read).

Object pronouns are infixed in the verb between tense marker and root: -ni- (me), -ku- (you), -m-/-mw- (him/her), -tu- (us), -wa- (them). Example: anani-penda (he/she loves me).

The suffix -ni added to nouns indicates 'at/in/to a place': nyumba → nyumbani (at home), shule → shuleni (at school), mji → mjini (in town). Creates locative nouns from regular nouns.

Common conjunctions: na (and), au (or), lakini (but), kwa sababu (because), kwa hiyo (therefore), ingawa (although), pia (also). Na is the most frequent connector.

Advanced possessives: mwenyewe (himself/herself/the owner), -enye (having/possessing): mwenye nyumba (house owner), wenye nguvu (those with power). Emphatic: mimi mwenyewe (I myself).

Comparison with kuliko (more than), zaidi (more), sana (very). Superlative: -a kwanza or kuliko wote (most of all). Equality: kama (like/as), sawa na (equal to).

Modal constructions: -weza (can/be able), lazima (must), -pasa/-bidi (should/ought), -taka (want), -hitaji (need). Lazima takes subjunctive; -weza conjugates normally.

Reflexive infix -ji- placed before the verb root indicates action on oneself: -jifunza (teach oneself/learn), -jiuliza (ask oneself), -jisikia (feel), -jiandikisha (register oneself).

Common adverbs: vizuri (well), vibaya (badly), sana (very/a lot), kidogo (a little), haraka (quickly), pole pole (slowly), kabisa (completely/totally), tu (only/just).

Places: hospitali (hospital), duka (shop), kanisa (church), msikiti (mosque), benki (bank), ofisi (office). Directions: kulia (right), kushoto (left), mbele (ahead), nyuma (behind), moja kwa moja (straight).

The hu- tense marker indicates habitual or general truth actions without a subject prefix: husoma (one usually reads), hula (one usually eats). Used for proverbs, routines, and general statements.

Simple commands use the verb root: soma! (read!). Polite/subjunctive commands use subject prefix + verb root + -e: usome (you should read), tuende (let's go). Negative: usi- prefix.

Less common noun classes: 5/6 ji-/ma- (fruits, augmentatives), 11/10 u- (abstract, thin objects), 15 ku- (infinitives/verbal nouns), 16-18 pa-/ku-/mu- (locative classes).

Relative clauses formed with relative markers infixed in the verb or using amba- + relative pronoun. The relative marker agrees with the noun class: -ye- (class 1), -cho- (class 7), -yo- (class 9).

Conditional tense with -nge- (present hypothetical) and -ngali- (past hypothetical). Ningejua = I would know; ningalijua = I would have known. Used in if-then constructions with kama (if).

Passive formed by adding -w- before the final vowel: penda → pendwa (be loved), soma → somwa (be read). Bantu vowel harmony applies: -iw-/-ew-/-liw-/-lew-.

The applied (prepositional) verb extension adds a beneficiary, purpose, or direction: pika → pikia (cook for), soma → somea (read to/for). Replaces some preposition uses.

Stative extension indicates possibility or a state: vunja → vunjika (be breakable/get broken), soma → someka (be readable). Often translates as 'can be' or passive-like meaning.

Subjunctive formed by changing the final -a to -e: asome (that he/she read), tufanye (that we do). Used after lazima (must), ili (so that), kabla (before), and for polite requests.

Complex comparisons: kadri...ndivyo (the more...the more), kiasi cha (to the extent of), zaidi ya (more than). Proportional and degree comparisons for sophisticated expression.

Time clauses: wakati (when/while), kabla ya (before), baada ya (after), tangu (since), mpaka/hadi (until). Often combined with infinitive (ku-) or relative constructions.

Compound tenses using kuwa (to be) + second verb: alikuwa anasoma (was reading, past continuous), atakuwa amefika (will have arrived, future perfect). Creates nuanced time references.

Real conditional with kama/ikiwa (if) + indicative tense: kama utasoma, utafaulu (if you study, you will pass). Distinguished from hypothetical -nge-/-ngali- conditionals at B1 level.

Infinitive prefix ku-: kusoma (to read/reading), kufanya (to do/doing). Functions as noun (class 15), subject, or object. Used after modal verbs, prepositions, and in purpose clauses.

Reciprocal extension indicates mutual action: penda → pendana (love each other), ona → onana (see each other). Can combine with other extensions for complex meanings.

Causative extension indicates 'cause to do': pika → pikisha (cause to cook/have cooked), enda → endesha (drive, lit. cause to go). Highly productive in Swahili.

Multiple extensions can combine on a single verb in a fixed order (applied > causative > reciprocal > passive > stative): pendana → pendanisha (cause to love each other).

Indirect speech introduced by kwamba/kuwa (that). Tense shifts from direct speech: -na- may become -li- or remain. Verbs of saying: alisema (said), aliambia (told), alidai (claimed).

The -ka- tense marker indicates a sequence of events (and then). Used in narratives after an initial tense is established: alikuja akakaa akaondoka (he came, then sat, then left).

The -ki- tense indicates simultaneity (when/while/if): akisoma (when/if he reads). Used for background events and general conditions. Combines with kama for emphasis.

Reversive extension reverses an action: funga → fungua (lock → unlock), ziba → zibua (block → unblock), jenga → jengua (build → demolish). Highly productive in Swahili.

Contact extension indicates persistence or holding onto: shika → shikana (hold each other), kamata → kamatana (catch each other/cling). Often combines with reciprocal for mutual sustained action.

Temporal relative marker -po- (when): nilipofika (when I arrived), atakapokuja (when he/she comes). Three forms: -po- (definite time), -ko- (indefinite), -mo- (inside/within).

Impersonal passives, double passives, and passives with verb extensions: inaaminika (it is believed), inasemekana (it is said), imefanywa vizuri (it has been done well).

Abstract and derived nouns from verbs/adjectives: u- prefix for qualities (uzuri = beauty, from -zuri), ma- for collections/results (maisha = life), ki- for manner (kizuri = nicely).

Nested relative clauses, negative relatives (-siye-, -sicho- etc.), and relative of manner. Amba- construction for complex or formal relatives: ambaye, ambayo, ambacho, etc.

Formal Swahili used in academic writing, news, and official documents. Features longer sentences, Arabic/English loanwords, passive constructions, and complex subordination.

Swahili is rich in proverbs (methali) used in daily speech. Understanding them is essential for cultural fluency. Many use archaic or poetic language forms.

Combining tense markers with auxiliary kuwa (to be) for complex time references: alikuwa anasoma (he was reading), atakuwa amesoma (he will have read). Sequence of tenses in complex sentences.

Classical Swahili poetry: utenzi (epic poem, 4-line stanzas, 8 syllables per line), shairi (4-line stanzas with internal rhyme), and wimbo (song). Strict meter, rhyme schemes, and traditional themes.

Journalistic Swahili: compressed headlines, passive constructions, attribution formulas, political vocabulary. Both Tanzanian and Kenyan media traditions with their distinct registers.

Religious Swahili draws heavily from Arabic (Islamic) and English (Christian) vocabulary: dua/sala (prayer), Mungu/Allah (God), dhambi (sin), toba (repentance), baraka (blessing), ibada (worship).

Complex text connectors: hata hivyo (however), kwa upande mwingine (on the other hand), kwa ufupi (in short), zaidi ya hayo (moreover), kwa mfano (for example), kwa ujumla (in general).

Classical Swahili poetry (utenzi, shairi) features archaic vocabulary, Arabic-influenced forms, and strict meter/rhyme. Understanding literary Swahili opens access to centuries of coastal East African literature.

Differences between standard Swahili (based on Kiunguja/Zanzibar) and regional varieties: Kimvita (Mombasa), Kiamu (Lamu), Kingwana (Congo), and Tanzanian vs. Kenyan usage.

Swahili as used in government, law, and administration. Heavy use of passive constructions, Arabic-derived legal terms, and complex subordinate clauses. Tanzania uses Swahili officially in courts and parliament.

Sheng (Swahili-English-indigenous mix from Nairobi), bongo flava slang (Tanzania), and SMS/social media language. Rapid evolution makes this register challenging for non-native speakers.

Swahili coastal cultural vocabulary: dhow (sailing vessel), dau (small boat), biashara (trade), bandari (harbor), monsuni (monsoon). Reflects centuries of Indian Ocean trade.

Modern coinages and technology terms: tarakilishi (computer, from Arabic), tovuti (website), simu ya mkononi (mobile phone), mtandao (network/internet), programu (software/app), data (data).