Relative Clauses (-ye-/-o-/-cho- etc.) in Swahili

Overview

Relative clauses allow speakers to add descriptive information to nouns, as in "the person who came" or "the book that I read." At the CEFR B1 level, mastering relative clauses is a major step toward complex, natural-sounding Swahili. Swahili has two primary strategies: infixed relative markers within the verb, and the amba- construction.

The infixed strategy embeds a relative marker directly into the verb, agreeing with the noun class of the antecedent: "aliyekuja" (who came, class 1) vs. "kilichovunjika" (which broke, class 7). The amba- strategy uses "amba-" plus a relative pronoun: "ambaye" (who, class 1), "ambacho" (which, class 7).

Both strategies are grammatically correct, though the infixed form is more common in speech and the amba- form is preferred in formal writing and when the relative clause is complex.

How It Works

Infixed Relative Markers by Class

Class	Relative Marker	Example
1 (m-)	-ye-	aliyekuja (who came)
2 (wa-)	-o-	waliokuja (who came, pl.)
3 (m-)	-o-	ulioanguka (which fell)
7 (ki-)	-cho-	kilichovunjika (which broke)
8 (vi-)	-vyo-	vilivyovunjika (which broke, pl.)
9 (n-)	-yo-	iliyopotea (which was lost)
10 (n-)	-zo-	zilizopotea (which were lost)
5 (ji-)	-lo-	lililovunjika (which broke)
6 (ma-)	-yo-	yaliyovunjika (which broke)

Amba- Construction

Class	Amba- form	Example
1	ambaye	Mtu ambaye alikuja... (The person who came...)
2	ambao	Watu ambao walikuja...
7	ambacho	Kitabu ambacho nilisoma...
9	ambayo	Nyumba ambayo tunaishi...

Position of Relative Marker (Infixed)

Subject prefix + tense marker + relative marker + verb root:

a- + li- + ye + kuja = aliyekuja (who came) ki- + li- + cho + vunjika = kilichovunjika (which broke)

Examples in Context

Swahili	English	Note
Mtu aliyekuja ni mwalimu.	The person who came is a teacher.	Class 1: -ye-
Kitabu nilichosoma ni kizuri.	The book I read is good.	Class 7: -cho-
Nyumba ambayo tunaishi ni ndogo.	The house we live in is small.	Amba- construction
Watoto wanaosoma ni wazuri.	The children who study are good.	Class 2: -o- (present)
Gari lililosimama ni langu.	The car that stopped is mine.	Class 5: -lo-
Nguo nilizozinunua ni nzuri.	The clothes I bought are nice.	Class 10: -zo-
Mji ambao tunautembelea ni mkubwa.	The city we are visiting is big.	Amba- + class 3
Watu waliokuja ni wengi.	The people who came are many.	Class 2: -o- (past)
Chakula kilichopikwa ni kitamu.	The food that was cooked is delicious.	Class 7 passive
Sababu iliyomfanya aondoke.	The reason that made him leave.	Class 9: -yo-

Common Mistakes

Using the wrong relative marker for the noun class

• Wrong: Kitabu aliyesoma (book who-read — using class 1 marker for class 7)
• Right: Kitabu alichosoma (the book he read — class 7: -cho-)
• Why: The relative marker must agree with the antecedent noun's class, not the subject.

Mixing infixed and amba- strategies

• Wrong: Mtu ambaye aliyekuja (double-marking)
• Right: Mtu ambaye alikuja OR Mtu aliyekuja
• Why: Choose one strategy. With amba-, the verb is in normal form; with infixed, the marker replaces amba-.

Forgetting the relative marker in present tense

• Wrong: Watoto wanasoma ni wazuri. (Children reading are good — missing relative)
• Right: Watoto wanaosoma ni wazuri. (Children who are reading are good.)
• Why: The relative marker -o- must be inserted even in the present tense.

Usage Notes

In spoken Swahili, the infixed relative is overwhelmingly preferred for its conciseness. The amba- construction is seen more in newspapers, academic writing, and formal speech. When learning, practice the infixed forms first as they are more frequent.

Negative relative clauses use a different set of markers (asiyesoma — who does not read), which adds further complexity at B2/C1 level.

Practice Tips

1. Relative clause joining: Take two simple sentences and combine them with a relative clause: "Mtu amekuja. Mtu ni mwalimu." → "Mtu aliyekuja ni mwalimu."
2. Class marker drill: Practice the relative markers for all major classes with one verb: aliyesoma, kilichosomwa, iliyosomwa, etc.
3. Amba- conversion: Convert five infixed relatives to amba- form and vice versa.

Related Concepts

• Prerequisite: Past Tense (-li-) — relative clauses commonly appear in past tense
• Next steps: Relative of Time (-po-/-lipo-) — temporal relative constructions
• Next steps: Complex Relative Constructions — nested and negative relatives