Gramatyka walijski

Personal pronouns in Welsh (fi, ti, fe/fo, hi, ni, chi, nhw). These are essential for verb constructions and possessive forms.

The most common initial consonant mutation in Welsh. Nine consonants change: p→b, t→d, c→g, b→f, d→dd, g→(disappears), m→f, ll→l, rh→r. Triggered by many common constructions.

The nasal mutation changes six consonants: p→mh, t→nh, c→ngh, b→m, d→n, g→ng. Mainly triggered by 'fy' (my) and 'yn' (in).

The aspirate mutation affects only three consonants: p→ph, t→th, c→ch. Triggered by 'ei' (her/its f.), 'â' (with), 'tri' (three), and 'chwe' (six).

Welsh has a definite article (y/yr/'r) but no indefinite article. 'Y' before consonants, 'yr' before vowels and h, ''r' after vowels. The article triggers soft mutation of feminine singular nouns.

Welsh nouns are masculine or feminine. Gender affects mutations after the article, adjective mutations, and pronoun choice. There are few reliable rules; gender must be learned with each noun.

Welsh plurals are formed in many ways: suffixes (-au, -iau, -oedd, -i, -od), vowel changes, or both. Some nouns use a singulative (-yn, -en) from a collective base form.

The verb 'bod' (to be) in present tense is the most important verb in Welsh. Forms: dw i, wyt ti, mae e/o, mae hi, dyn ni, dych chi, maen nhw. Used for states and periphrastic constructions.

Forming negative sentences with 'ddim' and questions by changing the verb form. In spoken Welsh: Dw i ddim, Wyt ti...?, Ydy e/hi...? Negative questions use 'Dyw...ddim?'.

Adjectives in Welsh usually follow the noun. Feminine singular nouns trigger soft mutation of the adjective. A few common adjectives precede the noun (hen, prif, hoff).

Common prepositions: i (to), o (from), yn (in), ar (on), am (about/for), â/gyda (with), dan (under), dros (over). Many trigger soft mutation of the following word.

Cardinal numbers 1-100 using the modern decimal system. Numbers trigger mutations: 'dau/dwy' (two m/f), 'tri/tair' (three m/f) cause aspirate or soft mutation. 'Un' causes soft mutation of feminine nouns.

Telling time (Mae hi'n... o'r gloch) and days of the week (dydd Llun, dydd Mawrth...), months of the year, and basic temporal expressions.

Welsh verbs have a base form called the verb-noun (berfenw), equivalent to the infinitive. Used with 'bod' + 'yn' for periphrastic constructions: Dw i'n darllen (I am reading/I read).

Expressing possession with 'gan/gyda' (Mae gen i = I have) in North/South Welsh. Also possessive adjectives: fy (my, + nasal), dy (your, + soft), ei (his, + soft / her, + aspirate).

Essential phrases for daily communication: greetings (Bore da, Prynhawn da), introductions (... ydw i), politeness (os gwelwch yn dda, diolch), and asking basic questions.

Expressing ability, obligation, and desire using periphrastic constructions: gallu (can), gorfod/rhaid (must), eisiau/moyn (want). 'Mae rhaid i fi' (I must), 'Dw i'n gallu' (I can).

Essential question words: beth (what), pwy (who), ble/lle (where), pryd (when), sut (how), pam (why), faint (how much/many). Question words often trigger soft mutation of following verbs.

Common adverbs of time, place, and manner: yma (here), yna (there), nawr (now), heddiw (today), bob dydd (every day), yn dda (well), yn gyflym (quickly). Many formed with 'yn' + adjective.

Expressing preferences with 'hoffi/licio' (to like), 'casáu' (to hate), 'caru' (to love): Dw i'n hoffi coffi. Also 'mae'n well gen i' (I prefer, lit. it's better with me).

Talking about weather using 'mae hi'n' constructions: Mae hi'n braf (It's fine), Mae hi'n bwrw glaw (It's raining), Mae hi'n oer (It's cold). Weather is always feminine 'hi'.

Essential food and drink vocabulary in context: bara (bread), caws (cheese), cig (meat), llaeth (milk), dŵr (water). Includes ordering and mealtime expressions with mutation patterns.

Family vocabulary showing gender and mutation patterns: tad (father), mam (mother), brawd (brother), chwaer (sister), mab (son), merch (daughter). Includes possessive mutations: fy mam (my mother).

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives: hwn/hon (this m/f), hyn (this abstract), hwnna/honna (that m/f), y... yma (this), y... yna (that). Used with mutations in context.

Expressing habits and routines with 'bod' + 'yn': Dw i'n codi am saith (I get up at seven). Includes frequency adverbs: bob dydd (every day), weithiau (sometimes), byth (never).

Expressing location using 'bod' with prepositions: Mae'r siop yn y dref (The shop is in town). Includes 'ble mae...?' (where is...?) and common location vocabulary.

Expressing ability and inability: 'gallu' (can/be able to) and 'methu' (cannot/fail to). Spoken forms: 'Alla i...?' (Can I...?), 'Fedra i ddim' (I can't). Also permission: 'Ga i...?' (May I?).

Colour adjectives showing gender mutation: coch (red), glas (blue), gwyrdd (green), du (black), gwyn (white). Feminine nouns trigger soft mutation: cath ddu (a black cat, f.), ci du (a black dog, m.).

Body parts and basic health expressions. Uses 'mae... gyda fi / gen i' for 'I have (a pain)'. Body parts: pen (head), braich (arm), coes (leg), stumog (stomach).

Two-word prepositions: wrth ymyl (next to), o flaen (in front of), y tu ôl i (behind), ar ben (on top of), o gwmpas (around). These are very common for spatial descriptions.

Imperfect tense of 'bod': roeddwn i, roeddet ti, roedd e/hi, roedden ni, roeddech chi, roedden nhw. Used for past states and habitual actions ('I was/used to be').

Periphrastic past tense using 'gwneud' (to do) as auxiliary: Wnes i ddarllen (I read), Wnest ti fynd? (Did you go?). The standard spoken past in modern Welsh.

Welsh prepositions conjugate for person: ar (arnaf i, arnat ti, arno fe, arni hi, arnon ni, arnoch chi, arnyn nhw). Essential for many common expressions (mae arnaf i eisiau = I want).

Relative clauses using 'sy/sydd' (who/that is) for present tense descriptions. The relative pronoun replaces 'mae' in affirmative clauses.

Common conjunctions: a/ac (and), ond (but), achos/oherwydd (because), pan (when), os (if), er (although), felly (so/therefore). Some trigger mutations.

Imperative forms: singular uses the verb stem (Dere!/Tyrd! = Come!), plural adds -wch. Negative commands use 'Paid â/Peidiwch â' + verb-noun with soft mutation.

Expressing completed actions with 'wedi' (Dw i wedi gorffen = I have finished) and recent past with 'newydd' (Dw i newydd gyrraedd = I have just arrived). Both use 'bod' as auxiliary.

Key irregular verbs in their spoken past forms: mynd (go) → es i, dod (come) → des i, gwneud (do) → wnes i, cael (get/have) → ces i. These are among the most frequently used verbs.

Direct and indirect object pronouns using possessives + verb-noun: fy + SM (me), dy + SM (you), ei + SM (him), ei + AM (her). Example: Mae e'n fy ngweld i (He sees me).

Vocabulary and structures for physical descriptions: gwallt (hair), llygaid (eyes), tal (tall), byr (short). Uses 'Mae... ganddo/ganddi' (He/She has) and adjective constructions.

Structures for giving opinions: dw i'n meddwl bod... (I think that...), dw i'n credu... (I believe...), yn fy marn i (in my opinion), mae'n well gen i (I prefer). Agreeing and disagreeing.

Preterite (completed past) of 'bod': bues i, buest ti, buodd e/hi, buon ni, buoch chi, buon nhw. Used for 'I was (for a time)' as opposed to habitual 'roeddwn i'.

Future tense of 'bod': bydda i, byddi di, bydd e/hi, byddwn ni, byddwch chi, byddan nhw. Used for future states and actions, and in conditional clauses.

Short-form (inflected) verbs where person is marked by endings, without 'bod' as auxiliary. More literary but some forms are common in speech: es i, est ti, aeth e (I went, you went, he went).

Conditional forms of 'bod': baswn i, baset ti, basai fe/hi, basen ni, basech chi, basen nhw (I would be, etc.). Used with 'yn' + verb-noun for 'would do' constructions.

Comparison of adjectives: equative (mor + adjective + â), comparative (-ach, mwy + adj + na), superlative (-af, mwyaf + adj). Many common adjectives have irregular forms (da→gwell→gorau).

Fronting elements for emphasis changes word order. Fronted nouns use 'sy/sydd' in present, adjectives use 'yw/ydy'. This is a key feature of Welsh syntax distinct from English.

Clauses introduced by 'bod' (that) after verbs of thinking, saying, knowing: Dw i'n meddwl bod hi'n dod (I think that she's coming). Uses 'bod' conjugated for person.

Impersonal verb forms ending in -ir (present), -wyd (past), -id (conditional). Used like passive constructions: Siaradir Cymraeg yma (Welsh is spoken here).

Expressing time relationships: pan (when), cyn (before), ar ôl (after), tra (while), nes (until), ers (since). Many require specific verb forms or mutations in the dependent clause.

First conditional with 'os' (if): Os bydd hi'n braf, byddwn ni'n mynd (If it's fine, we'll go). Open conditions use future tense. Also 'os' with present for general truths.

Verbs formed from nouns/adjectives + gwneud/cael/rhoi: penderfynu (to decide), defnyddio (to use), ymddiheuro (to apologize). Includes reflexive-like 'ym-' prefix verbs.

Ordinal numbers: cyntaf (first), ail (second, + soft mutation), trydydd/trydedd (third m/f), pedwerydd/pedwaredd (fourth m/f). Also fractions: hanner (half), chwarter (quarter), traean (third).

The versatile verb 'cael' meaning 'to get/receive', 'to be allowed', and forming the passive. Ces i (I got), Ga i? (May I?), Cafodd ei eni (He was born). Different from 'gallu' for ability.

Structures for plans: 'mynd i' + verb-noun (going to), future with 'bydda i'n', suggesting with 'Beth am...?' (What about...?), and arranging with 'Gawn ni gwrdd am...' (Shall we meet at...?).

Extended relative clause constructions: indirect relative with 'y/yr' and resumptive pronoun, negative relative 'nad/na', and relative clauses in different tenses.

Full passive constructions using 'cael' (to get/receive): Ces i fy ngweld (I was seen, lit. 'I got my seeing'). Combines 'cael' conjugated + possessive + verb-noun.

Second and third conditional sentences: Pe baswn i'n gyfoethog... (If I were rich...), Pe bawn i wedi gwybod... (If I had known...). Uses 'pe' + conditional/pluperfect forms.

Indirect speech using 'dweud/dywedyd bod' with tense backshift. Direct quotes are restructured using noun clauses with 'bod' or 'y/yr' for inflected forms.

Perfect and pluperfect using 'wedi': Dw i wedi gwneud (I have done), Roeddwn i wedi gwneud (I had done). Also continuous forms with 'yn' and recent past with 'newydd'.

Complex clauses expressing cause (achos/oherwydd/gan fod), purpose (er mwyn/i), and result (felly/o ganlyniad). 'Gan fod' + bod conjugated for causal clauses.

Using the 'cael' passive construction across tenses: Ces i fy nhalu (I was paid), Bydda i'n cael fy nhalu (I will be paid), Roeddwn i'n cael fy nhalu (I was being paid).

Future perfect: Bydda i wedi gorffen (I will have finished). Past conditional: Baswn i wedi mynd (I would have gone). Complex tense combinations for nuanced time reference.

Advanced connectors for coherent discourse: ar y llaw arall (on the other hand), fodd bynnag (however), yn ogystal â (in addition to), o ganlyniad (as a result), mewn gwirionedd (in reality).

Concessive constructions with 'er' (although): er bod, er i fi, er gwaethaf. Contrastive structures: tra bod (whereas), yn hytrach na (rather than). Literary and spoken variants.

Full inflected conjugations used in formal and literary Welsh. Present-future: af, ei, â, awn, ewch, ânt. Imperfect: awn, aet, âi, aem, aech, aent. Including irregular verbs (mynd, dod, gwneud, cael).

Complex mutation triggers: after 'ni/na/oni' (soft in spoken, mixed in literary), after 'a' (relative/interrogative particle), and less common environments. Literary mixed mutation patterns.

Formal written Welsh: 'y mae' instead of 'mae', 'yr wyf' instead of 'dw i', negative 'ni/nid', affirmative particle 'fe/mi'. Literary clause structures and formal correspondence style.

Common Welsh idioms and fixed expressions: 'ar ben fy nigon' (on top of the world), 'codi pais ar ôl pisio' (too late), 'rhoi'r ffidil yn y to' (to give up). Many use conjugated prepositions.

Multi-clause constructions: concessive clauses with 'er + bod', consecutive clauses, parenthetical insertions, and literary subordination patterns not found in spoken Welsh.

Understanding the spectrum from very colloquial to very formal Welsh. Key differences: colloquial shortened forms (ti'n, ma', sgen), neutral standard, and literary/formal registers.

Understanding cynghanedd (Welsh strict-meter poetry): consonant harmony, rhyme, and stress patterns. Also free-verse traditions and modern literary Welsh style.

Avoiding English calques and maintaining idiomatic Welsh: 'cymryd rhan' not 'chwarae rhan' (take part), 'yn ôl pob golwg' not 'mae'n ymddangos' (apparently). Common translation traps.

Welsh-specific discourse features: tag questions (ydy/ife?), focus particles (ynteu, tybed), hedging (falle, hwyrach), and information structure strategies unique to Welsh conversation.

Understanding older Welsh literary forms from the Mabinogion and medieval poetry: archaic pronouns (myfi, tydi), old verb forms (canys, sef), and obsolete constructions still encountered in proverbs and place names.

Key North-South dialect differences: vocabulary (llefrith/llaeth, rŵan/nawr), verb forms (dwi/wi, wnes/nes), pronunciation patterns, and regional colloquialisms.

Language of law, governance, and official documents. Features: impersonal constructions, nominalizations, complex subordination, and specialized terminology used in Welsh-medium administration.

Informal spoken Welsh: contractions (ti'mod = you know, s'mae = how's it going), slang, filler words, and the gap between written standard and authentic everyday speech.

Language of Welsh-medium broadcasting (S4C, BBC Radio Cymru) and journalism. Features a middle register between literary and colloquial, with standardized vocabulary for modern concepts.

Understanding Welsh place name elements: aber (river mouth), llan (church/enclosure), pen (top/head), cwm (valley), pont (bridge). Reveals historical Welsh grammar and landscape vocabulary.