Discourse and Linking Expressions in Welsh

In Brief

Welsh discourse connectors show how one idea relates to another: fodd bynnag introduces a contrast, yn ogystal â adds information, o ganlyniad gives a result, and mewn gwirionedd corrects an impression or states the reality. They do more than translate English words such as “however” or “in fact”: each expression has its own grammatical pattern and a particular job in the argument.

Overview

At A2, connectors such as a/ac (“and”), ond (“but”), oherwydd (“because”), and felly (“so”) let you join basic ideas. At B2, the next step is to organise a whole explanation, discussion, or argument. A discourse connector tells the listener or reader whether the next point adds evidence, contrasts with the previous point, follows from it, clarifies it, or concludes the discussion.

These expressions are useful in essays, reports, presentations, interviews, and extended conversation. They help create cohesion (the way the parts of a text hold together) and make the direction of your reasoning explicit. Compare the abrupt sequence Mae'r cynllun yn ddrud. Mae iddo fanteision (“The plan is expensive. It has advantages”) with Mae'r cynllun yn ddrud. Ar y llaw arall, mae iddo fanteision (“The plan is expensive. On the other hand, it has advantages”). The connector tells us to interpret the second sentence as a counterweight to the first.

English offers several near-synonyms—“however,” “nevertheless,” “on the other hand,” and “in fact”—but they are not interchangeable in either language. Learning a Welsh connector together with its function and the structure that follows it is more reliable than memorising a one-word translation.

How It Works

Choose the relationship first

Before choosing an expression, decide what the second idea is doing.

Relationship	Welsh expression	Typical English meaning	Pattern
contrast with the previous claim	fodd bynnag	however	often followed by a complete clause
the other side of an issue	ar y llaw arall	on the other hand	usually comments on an earlier point
concession: the earlier fact does not change the outcome	serch hynny, er hynny	nevertheless, despite that	followed by the unexpected outcome
addition	yn ogystal â	in addition to, as well as	followed by a noun, pronoun, or verb-noun
additional separate point	ar ben hynny	moreover, on top of that	followed by a complete clause
result	o ganlyniad	as a result	stands alone before the resulting clause
result caused by a named thing	o ganlyniad i	as a result of	followed by a noun or verb-noun phrase
correction or reality	mewn gwirionedd	in fact, in reality	followed by the corrected or more exact claim
explanation or reformulation	hynny yw	that is, in other words	restates the preceding idea
example	er enghraifft	for example	introduces an illustration
ordering	yn gyntaf, yn ail, yn olaf	firstly, secondly, finally	marks stages or points
summary	ar y cyfan, i gloi	on the whole, to conclude	evaluates or closes the discussion

A complete clause is a group of words that can make a sentence, normally with a subject and a verb: mae'r pris yn rhesymol (“the price is reasonable”). A verb-noun is the Welsh dictionary form used for actions, such as mynd (“to go”) or darllen (“to read”). This distinction matters because fodd bynnag can introduce a complete new statement, while yn ogystal â needs a complement after â.

Contrast: fodd bynnag and ar y llaw arall

Use fodd bynnag when the next statement limits, challenges, or runs against what has just been said:

Roedd y gwaith yn anodd. Fodd bynnag, fe wnaethon ni ei orffen.

“The work was difficult. However, we finished it.”

Use ar y llaw arall when you deliberately present another side of a comparison. It is especially natural when weighing advantages against disadvantages. For an explicit two-part frame, use ar y naill law ... ar y llaw arall (“on the one hand ... on the other hand”):

Ar y naill law, mae'r tŷ'n rhad; ar y llaw arall, mae angen llawer o waith arno.

“On the one hand, the house is cheap; on the other hand, it needs a lot of work.”

Serch hynny and er hynny are closer to “nevertheless”: the first fact might lead you to expect one result, but something else happens. That concessive meaning is often stronger than the simple contrast of fodd bynnag.

Addition: yn ogystal â and ar ben hynny

Yn ogystal â means “in addition to” or “as well as.” It is followed by the extra item, not directly by an independent sentence:

• yn ogystal â'r cyflog — in addition to the salary
• yn ogystal â hynny — in addition to that
• yn ogystal â gweithio gartref — as well as working at home
• yn ogystal â bod yn rhad — as well as being cheap

The preposition â triggers the aspirate mutation of p, t, c when the next word can mutate: prynu becomes phrynu in yn ogystal â phrynu bwyd (“as well as buying food”). Other initial letters remain unchanged.

Use ar ben hynny when the added material is a whole new point: Mae'r lleoliad yn gyfleus. Ar ben hynny, mae'r rhent yn rhesymol. (“The location is convenient. Moreover, the rent is reasonable.”)

Result: o ganlyniad and o ganlyniad i

O ganlyniad can stand at the beginning of the result sentence:

Collodd y tîm ddau chwaraewr. O ganlyniad, roedd y gêm yn anos.

“The team lost two players. As a result, the match was harder.”

Add i when you name the cause immediately after the expression:

O ganlyniad i'r storm, caewyd yr ysgol.

“As a result of the storm, the school was closed.”

The i may cause a soft mutation where the normal mutation rules require it: colli becomes golli in o ganlyniad i golli'r bws (“as a result of missing the bus”). Do not confuse the result marker o ganlyniad with a cause marker such as oherwydd (“because of/because”). A cause explains why; a result states what followed.

Correction and clarification

Use mewn gwirionedd when the reality differs from an assumption, an appearance, or a previous description:

Roeddwn i'n meddwl ei fod yn flin. Mewn gwirionedd, roedd e'n poeni.

“I thought he was angry. In fact, he was worried.”

Use hynny yw when you are not contradicting the first statement but explaining it more precisely: Bydd y gwasanaeth yn gyfyngedig, hynny yw, ni fydd trenau ar ôl naw. (“The service will be limited; that is, there will be no trains after nine.”)

Position and punctuation

These expressions often appear at the start of a sentence, followed by a comma. They may also follow a semicolon when two closely related complete clauses are kept in one sentence:

Mae'r cynllun yn uchelgeisiol; fodd bynnag, mae'n bosibl.

This is not the only possible position, but it is the clearest one for learners. Avoid joining two complete written sentences with only a comma. A full stop or semicolon makes the structure easier to read. In speech, intonation and a short pause often do the work that punctuation does on the page.

Examples in Context

Welsh	English	Note
Ar y llaw arall, mae manteision hefyd.	On the other hand, there are advantages too.	Introduces the positive side of an issue.
Fodd bynnag, nid yw hynny'n wir.	However, that is not true.	Directly challenges the preceding claim.
Yn ogystal â hynny, mae'n rhad.	In addition to that, it is cheap.	Adds another advantage.
O ganlyniad, bu'n rhaid aros.	As a result, we had to wait.	States the consequence.
Mae'r swydd yn talu'n dda; ar y llaw arall, mae'r oriau'n hir.	The job pays well; on the other hand, the hours are long.	Weighs benefit against drawback.
Ar y naill law, mae'r car yn gyflym; ar y llaw arall, mae'n defnyddio llawer o danwydd.	On the one hand, the car is fast; on the other hand, it uses a lot of fuel.	Balanced two-part contrast.
Roedd hi wedi blino. Serch hynny, parhaodd i weithio.	She was tired. Nevertheless, she continued working.	The outcome goes against expectation.
Yn ogystal â gweithio yn y llyfrgell, mae Aled yn astudio gyda'r nos.	As well as working in the library, Aled studies in the evening.	â is followed by a verb-noun phrase.
Mae'r fflat yn agos at y ganolfan. Ar ben hynny, mae'r bws yn stopio y tu allan.	The flat is near the centre. Moreover, the bus stops outside.	Adds a separate supporting point.
O ganlyniad i'r tywydd garw, cafodd yr ŵyl ei chanslo.	As a result of the bad weather, the festival was cancelled.	i introduces the cause.
Roeddwn i'n disgwyl talu mwy. Mewn gwirionedd, roedd y tocyn yn rhatach ar-lein.	I expected to pay more. In fact, the ticket was cheaper online.	Corrects an expectation.
Mae angen lleihau'r gost, hynny yw, rhaid inni newid y cynllun.	We need to reduce the cost; that is, we must change the plan.	Reformulates the practical meaning.
Mae sawl ffordd o ymarfer; er enghraifft, gelli di wrando ar y radio.	There are several ways to practise; for example, you can listen to the radio.	Introduces one illustration.
Yn gyntaf, darllenwch y cwestiwn. Yn ail, nodwch y prif bwyntiau.	First, read the question. Second, note the main points.	Orders instructions clearly.
Ar y cyfan, roedd y prosiect yn llwyddiant.	On the whole, the project was a success.	Gives an overall judgement.

Common Mistakes

Leaving out â after yn ogystal

• Wrong: Yn ogystal hynny, mae parcio am ddim.
• Right: Yn ogystal â hynny, mae parcio am ddim.
• Why: The linking expression is yn ogystal â. It needs â before its complement.

Treating yn ogystal â as a sentence adverb

• Wrong: Yn ogystal â, mae'r stafell yn fawr.
• Right: Yn ogystal â hynny, mae'r stafell yn fawr.
• Also right: Ar ben hynny, mae'r stafell yn fawr.
• Why: Yn ogystal â cannot be left hanging. Add a complement such as hynny, or use ar ben hynny before a complete added point.

Forgetting i after o ganlyniad when naming the cause

• Wrong: O ganlyniad y glaw, arhoson ni gartref.
• Right: O ganlyniad i'r glaw, arhoson ni gartref.
• Why: Use o ganlyniad i + cause. Without a following cause phrase, o ganlyniad can stand alone.

Missing the mutation after â

• Wrong: yn ogystal â prynu bwyd
• Right: yn ogystal â phrynu bwyd
• Why: Â triggers the aspirate mutation: p → ph, t → th, and c → ch. This only changes words beginning with one of those consonants.

Using ar y llaw arall without another side

• Awkward: Mae'r trên yn hwyr. Ar y llaw arall, mae'r platfform yn llawn.
• Better: Mae'r trên yn hwyr. Ar ben hynny, mae'r platfform yn llawn.
• Why: Both facts are additional problems; they are not opposing sides. Ar y llaw arall needs a genuine contrast.

Translating every English “in fact” as mewn gwirionedd

• Awkward for simple addition: Mae'r gwesty'n gyfforddus. Mewn gwirionedd, mae ganddo bwll nofio hefyd.
• Better: Mae'r gwesty'n gyfforddus. Ar ben hynny, mae ganddo bwll nofio.
• Why: Mewn gwirionedd normally signals reality, correction, or a more accurate account. For a straightforward extra fact, use an additive connector.

Usage Notes

These connectors vary in register (the style appropriate to a situation). Fodd bynnag, o ganlyniad, and ar y cyfan are common in organised writing and formal speech. They are not restricted to formal Welsh, but using one in every sentence can make ordinary conversation sound rehearsed. In spontaneous speech, shorter words such as ond, felly, and hefyd often do more of the work.

A formal connector does not force the rest of the sentence into literary Welsh. Both Fodd bynnag, nid yw hynny'n wir and the more conversational Fodd bynnag, dyw hynny ddim yn wir express the same relationship, though their register differs. Keep the variety of Welsh you are using consistent with your audience rather than mixing highly formal and very colloquial forms at random.

Do not assume that a connector proves the relationship it announces. O ganlyniad claims that the next point follows from what came before; er enghraifft promises a real example; hynny yw promises an equivalent clarification. In careful writing, check that the logic actually matches the label.

Beyond the Basics / Advanced Use

At a higher level, good cohesion depends as much on restraint as on range. Repeating fodd bynnag at the start of every contrasting sentence is grammatically possible but stylistically heavy. You can vary the structure with serch hynny, er hynny, ar y llaw arall, or a direct conjunction such as ond, provided the meaning remains accurate.

Pay attention to scope—the amount of text a connector relates to. Yn ogystal â can link two small parallel elements: Mae hi'n darllen Cymraeg yn ogystal â Saesneg (“She reads Welsh as well as English”). Ar ben hynny, by contrast, usually adds a proposition, meaning a whole claim: Mae hi'n darllen Cymraeg. Ar ben hynny, mae hi'n ei hysgrifennu'n rhugl. (“She reads Welsh. Moreover, she writes it fluently.”)

Connectors can also guide the structure of a longer argument. A clear paragraph might open with yn gyntaf, introduce a counterargument with ar y llaw arall, answer it with fodd bynnag, support the answer with er enghraifft, and close with o ganlyniad or ar y cyfan. This does not mean every paragraph needs five signposts. Use one where the relationship might otherwise be missed.

Finally, distinguish discourse linking from clause grammar. Expressions such as er bod (“although”), tra bod (“whereas”), and yn hytrach na (“rather than”) build contrast inside a clause and have their own patterns. They are natural next steps once you can reliably organise separate statements with the expressions in this article.

Practice Tips

1. Sort by function, not translation. Make five groups—contrast, addition, result, correction, and organisation—and place each new expression in one group. Then write one Welsh example that makes the relationship unmistakable.
2. Build two-sentence pairs. Start with two plain facts and choose a connector: Mae'r cwrs yn anodd. Mae'n ddefnyddiol. Try fodd bynnag for contrast, then change the facts so that o ganlyniad or ar ben hynny becomes logical.
3. Edit a short paragraph aloud. Record a one-minute opinion, listen back, and replace repeated ond or felly only where a more exact connector improves the meaning. This practises natural selection rather than decorative overuse.

Related Concepts

• Prerequisite: Conjunctions and Connectors — introduces core links such as a/ac, ond, oherwydd, and felly.
• Related: Cause, Purpose, and Result Clauses — develops grammatical patterns for causes, purposes, and consequences.
• Related: Concessive and Contrastive Clauses — extends contrast with er bod, er gwaethaf, tra bod, and yn hytrach na.